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ESSENTIALS 



OP 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



Foe the Use of Schools. 



BY 



WILLIAM DWIGHT WHITNEY, 

PROFESSOR OF SANSKRIT AND COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY AND INSTRUCTOR OF MODERN LANGUAGES 

IN YALE COLLEGE J AUTHOR OF " LANGUAGE AND THE STUDY OF LANGUAGE," 

"•LIFE AND GROWTH OF LANGUAGE," " ORIENTAL AND LINGUISTIC 

STUDIES," A "COMPENDIOUS GERMAN GRAMMAR" 

GERMAN 

ETC. ETC. 






BOSTON: 
GINN AND HEATH 

1877. 







Copyright, 1877. 
By W. D. WHITNEY. 



University Press: Welch, Bigelow, & Co., 
Cambridge. 



PEEFACE 



In preparing the present work, my intention has been 
to make it fulfil strictly the promise of its title. I have 
endeavored to put before the learner those matters which 
are of most essential consequence to him, those which 
will best serve him as preparation for further and deeper 
knowledge of his own language, for the study of other 
languages, and for that of language in general. That the 
leading object of the study of English grammar is to 
| teach the correct use of English is, in my view, an error, 
and one which is gradually becoming removed, giving way 
to the sounder opinion that grammar is the reflective study 
of language, for a variety of purposes, of which correctness 
in writing is only one, and a secondary or subordinate 
one — by no means unimportant, but best attained when 
sought indirectly. It should be a pervading element in 
the whole school and home training of the young, to make 
them use their own tongue with accuracy and force ; and, 
along with any special drilling directed to this end, some 
of the rudimentary distinctions and rules of grammar are 
conveniently taught ; but that is not the study of gram- 
mar, and it will not bear the intrusion of much formal 
grammar without being spoiled for its own ends. It is 
constant use and practice, under never-failing watch and 
correction, that makes good writers and speakers ; the 
application of direct authority is the most efficient correc- 



iv PREFACE. 

tive. Grammar has its part to contribute, but rather in 
the higher than in the lower stages of the work. One 
must be a somewhat reflective user of language to amend 
even here and there a point by grammatical reasons ; and 
no one ever changed from a bad speaker to a good one by 
applying the rules of grammar to what he said. 

To teach English grammar to an English speaker is, as it 
seems to me, to take advantage of the fact that the pupil 
knows the facts of the language, in order to turn his atten- 
tion to the underlying principles and relations, to the 
philosophy of language as illustrated in his own use of it, 
in a more effective manner than is otherwise possible. 
Foreign languages are generally acquired in an " artificial " 
way, the facts coming ticketed w T ith certain grammatical 
labels which the scholar learns as if they were part of the 
facts themselves ; and the grammar part is apt to remain 
long a wholly artificial system to him. Almost every one 
can remember the time when it first began to dawn upon his 
mind that the familiar terms and distinctions of grammar 
really meant something. But this is partly because chil- 
dren are (and with good reason) set to learning foreign 
languages before their reflective powers are enough devel- 
oped to make such things intelligible to them. If the 
pupil is bright enough, his Latin grammar comes by de- 
grees to be to him something more than a heap of dry 
bones ; and then he gets the benefit, in its application by 
analogy to other languages, his own included, of the hard 
work he has done upon it. A real understanding of gram- 
mar, however, he can get sooner and more surely in con- 
nection with his own tongue than anywhere else, if his 
attention is first directed to that which most needs to be 
learned, unencumbered with burdensome detail, and if a 
clear method is followed, with abundance of illustration. 



PREFACE, V 

English grammar can in this way be made to pay back, 
with interest, the debt which it. owes to Latin. It must be 
for practical use to show how far the endeavor to reach 
these ends is successful, in the work here put forth. 

I have wished to give the main facts of the English lan- 
guage just as they are in themselves, not importing into 
them anything that belongs to other languages. With this 
in view, certain subjects have been treated in a somewhat 
new way, but one which will, I hope, commend itself 
to general approval by its reasonableness. The ordinary 
method with gender in nouns, for example, which was 
really an imposition upon English of a system of distinc- 
tions belonging elsewhere, has been abandoned in favor 
of one that is both truer and far simpler. The sharp 
distinction, again, of the verb-phrases or compound forms 
from the real verb-forms seems to me a matter of no small 
importance, if the study of the construction of sentences 
is to be made a reality. 

It has been my constant endeavor to bear in mind the 
true position of the grammarian, as stated in the introduc- 
tory chapter — that he is simply a recorder and arranger of 
the usages of language, and in no manner or degree a law- 
giver ; hardly even an arbiter or critic. Certainly, an ele- 
mentary work is no place for dragging forward to attention 
matters of disputed usage, nor are elementary pupils the 
persons before whom to discuss nice and difficult points. 
Where reference has been made to any such subjects, it 
has been in order simply to set forth the facts of usage, as 
fairly and briefly as possible, or to state the principles that 
should govern the case. 

Many grammars, of course, have been consulted in the 
preparation of this, and valuable hints have been de- 
rived from one and another. But I do not feel that I 



vi PREFACE. 

need acknowledge particular obligation to any excepting 
the great thesaurus of Matzner (Berlin, 1873-5: there is 
an English version, but it is hardly to be used), to which I 
have constantly referred ; especially drawing upon its rich 
stores of citations illustrating almost every conceivable 
point of English usage, for the benefit of the parsing exer- 
cises which are appended to the various chapters. In the 
body of the work, I have preferred to use almost exclu- 
sively illustrations made off-hand, because such seemed to 
me more desirable : the more familiar and every-day the 
exemplifications of principles, the better; and the pupil 
should be led to form them for himself as much as pos- 
sible. 

I have also for the most part avoided the use of set 
rules, lest they should come to be applied mechanically. In 
studying the grammar of one's own language, the true end 
is not attained unless such a real understanding is gained 
by the scholar that he can state in his own language the 
principle involved ; and he should be made, or helped, to 
do so. 

My thanks are due to several eminent scholars, among 

my colleagues and elsewhere, who have been kind enough 

to give me the benefit of their counsel during the progress 

of my work. 

"W. D. W. 

Yale College, New Haven, Conn., 
January, 1877. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



The references are to paragraphs. 

CHAPTEE I. — Language and Grammar, 1-15 (pp. 1-5). 

English, language, its name and origin, 1 - 3 ; mixture of material in it, 4 ; its 
spread, 5 ; variety in time, 6 ; changes, 7 ; Anglo-Saxon, 8 ; local peculiarities, 
dialects, 9 ; good and bad English, 10 ; English grammar, 11 ; office of grammar, 
study of grammar, 12-5. 

CHAPTER II. — The Sentence; the Parts of Speech, 16-55 
(pp. 6-23). 

Various kinds and uses of words, 16 - 8 ; parts of speech, 19 ; sentence, 20 - 1 ; kinds 
of sentence, 22 ; kinds of words forming a sentence, 23 ; parts of the sentence, 
subject and predicate, 24- 7 ; verb, 28-9 ; bare and complete predicate, 30 ; noun, 
31 - 2 ; pronoun, 33 - 4 ; substantive words, 35 ; independent parts of speech, 36 ; 
adjective, 37 - 9 ; predicate adjective or noun, 40 ; adverb, 41 - 2 ; qualifying 
and connecting parts of speech, 43 ; preposition, 44 - 6 ; conjunction, 47- 8 ; classi- 
fication of parts of speech, 49 ; interjections, 50-1 ; articles and numerals, 52 ; 
interrogative and imperative sentences, 53 - 5. 

EXERCISES, for determining and defining the Parts of Speech, pp. 21 - 3 : 
I. Bare subject and predicate. II. With adjectives added. III. With adverbs 
added. IV. With prepositions added. V. With conjunctions. VI. Miscellaneous 
examples on the chapter. 

CHAPTER III.— Inflection, 56 - 87 (pp. 24 - 37). 

Changes of form of words, 56-7 ; number in noun and pronoun, 58 ; in verb, 59 ; 
government and agreement, 60 ; person in pronoun and verb, 61 - 3 ; tense and 
mode in verb, 64-5; inflection, conjugation of verb, 66-7; possessive case in 
noun and pronoun, 68-70 ; object, and objective case in pronoun and noun, 71-4 ; 
declension of noun and pronoun, 75 inflection and comparison of adjectives, 
76-8; uninflected parts of speech, 79-80 ; methods of inflection, 81-6; base of 
inflection, root, 87. 

EXERCISES, for practice in Inflection, pp. 36-7: VII. Miscellaneous exam- 
ples. 



VUl TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER IV. — Derivation and Composition, 88-107 (pp. 
38-45). 

Derivation, suffix, various examples of derivation by suffix, 88 - 96 ; derivation by- 
internal change, 96 - 7 ; conversion of one part of speech to another, without 
change, 98- 9 ; derivation by prefix, 100-1 ; composition, compound words, 102-7. 

EXERCISES, FOR ANALYZING DERIVATIVE AND COMPOUND WORDS, pp. 44-5: 

VIII. Miscellaneous examples. 

CHAPTEE V. — Nouns, 108-48 (pp. 46-65). 

Nouns, definition and uses, 108. 

Classes of Nouns, 109-19 : various classes, 109-12 ; common and proper nouns, 

113 ; collectives, 114 ; gender-nouns, 115 ; diminutives, 116 ; simple, derivative, and 

compound, 117-19. 
Inflection of Nouns, 120-42 : declension, 120 ; number, regular formation, 121-3 ; 

irregular, 124-6; wanting, 127 ; words used only in singular or in plural, 128-9 ; 

compound nouns, 130 ; case, 131 -2 ; formation of possessive case, 133 - 8 ; dative 

case, 139 - 40 ; vocative, 141 ; examples of declension, 142. 
Other parts of speech used as nouns, 143 - 8. 

EXERCISES, for practice in parsing Nouns, pp. 62 - 5 : rules for parsing in 
general ; examples of parsing nouns ; IX. Miscellaneous examples. 

CHAPTER VI . — Pronouns, 149 - 89 (pp. 66 - 82). 

Pronoun, definition and uses, 149-50 ; inflection, 151 ; classification, 152. 

Personal pronouns, 153 - 65 : person, 153 ; inflection, first and second persons, 155 ; 
uses of plural forms, 156-8 ; third person, gender, 159 ; inflection, 160 ; uses of 
gender forms, 161 - 2 ; of it, 163 ; compounds, with self etc., 164 ; possessives, 165. 

Demonstrative Pronouns, 166-8. 

Interrogative Pronouns, 169-73. 

Relative or Conjunctive Pronouns, 174-87: relative and antecedent, 174-6; 
person of relative, 177 ; uses of the different relatives, 178 - 80 ; compound rela- 
tives, 181 - 2 ; indefinite relatives, 183 ; omission of that as relative, 184 ; relative 
adverbs, 185 ; as and but in relative use, 186-7. 

Indefinite Pronouns, 188-9. 

EXERCISES, for practice in parsing Pronouns, pp. 79 - 82 : examples of pars- 
ing pronouns ; X. Miscellaneous examples. 

CHAPTER Y II. — Adjectives, 190-221 (pp. 83-98). 

. Adjective, definition and use, 190 ; descriptive and limiting use, 191 ; simple, de- 
rivative, and compound adjectives, 192-4 ; classes of adjectives, 195. 

Adjectives of Quality, 196-203 : inflection, 196 ; comparison, 197-201 ; irregular 
comparison, 202 ; use as noun and adverb etc., 203. 

Pronominal Adjectives, 204-11: possessive, 205 - 7 ; demonstrative, 208; inter- 
rogative, 209 • relative, 210 ; indefinite, 211. 

Numerals, 212-18: cardinals, 212 - 5 j ordinals, 216; fractionals, 217; multiplica- 
tives, 218. 

Articles, 219-21. 

EXERCISES, for practice in parsing Adjectives, pp. 96-8: examples of pars- 
ing adjectives ; XI. Miscellaneous examples. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. ix 

CHAPTER VIII. — Verbs, 222 - 307 (pp. 99 - 135). 

Verb, definition and use, 222 ; transitive and intransitive verbs, 223 ; simple, de- 
rivative, and compound verbs, 224 - 6 ; inflection, 227 ; for person and number, 
228-30 ; for tense and mode, 231 -4 ; infinitives and participles, 235-8 ; conjuga- 
tions, New and Old, 239 - 40 ; examples of both conjugations, 241 ; principal parts, 
242 ; tense-inflection, 243. 

New Conjugation, 244-56: regular verbs, 244; irregular, 245-56. 

Old Conjugation, 257 - 75 : characteristics, 257 ; classes and irregularities, 258-60 ; 
Old verbs, and their mode of conjugation, 261-74; conjugation of he, 273; 
double forms of participles, 275. 

Other Irregular Verbs (auxiliaries), 276-8. 

Compound Verbal Forms, Verb-Phrases, 279-305 : emphatic verb-phrases, 279-80 ; 
continuous or progressive, 281 ; . future, 282 ; distinction of shall and will, 2S3 - 6 ; 
conditional, 287 ; perfect and pluperfect, 288 - 9 ; other tense and mode phrases, 
potential and obligative, and their perfects, and progressive forms, 290 - 3 ; infini- 
tive and participle-phrases, 294 ; scheme of conjugation, simple forms and phrases, 
295 ; its indefinite limits, 296 ; passive verb-phrases, 297 - 305 ; progressive phrases, 
299 ; scheme of conjugation, 300 ; active and passive, 301 ; passive and non- 
passive use of phrases, 302 - 3 ; verbs forming passive phrases, 304 - 5. 

Reflexive and Impersonal Verbs, 306 - 7. 

EXERCISES, for practice in parsing Verbs, pp. 131-4; examples of parsing 
verbs j XII. Miscellaneous examples. 

Alphabetical List of Irregular Verbs, p. 135. 



CHAPTER IX. —Adverbs, 308 - 18 (pp. 136 - 42). 

Offices of adverbs, 308-10; classes of adverbs, 311 ; simple, derivative, and com- 
pound adverbs, 312-4; adverb-phrases, 315; comparison of adverbs, 316 ; there 
with verbs, 317. 

Responsives, 318. 

Parsing of Adverbs, p. 142. 

CHAPTER X. — Prepositions, 319 - 26 (pp. 143 - 6). 

Office of a preposition, 319 ; its constructions, 320 - 3 ; classes of prepositions, 

324 - 5 ; preposition-phrases, 326. 
Parsing of Prepositions, p. 146. 

CHAPTER XL — Conjunctions, 327-31 (pp. 147-51). 

Office of a conjunction, 327 ; co-ordinating and subordinating conjunctions and 

their classes, 328-30 ; words used as conjunctions, 331. 
Parsing of Conjunctions, p. 151. 



CHAPTER XII. — Interjections, 332-6 (pp. 152-3). 

Character of an interjection, 332 - 3 ; classes, 334 ; words used as interjections, 

335 ; constructions, 336. 
Parsing of Interjections, p. 153. 



X TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER XIII. — Syntax : the Simple Sentence, 337-410 
(pp. 154-87). 

Syntax, 337; kinds of sentence, 33S-9; essential elements of the sentence, 340-44; 
rules as to their form, 345 - 7 ; special cases, 348. 

Predicate Noun and Adjective, 350 - 57 : incomplete verbs, 350 ; addition of 
predicate noun or adjective, 351 - 2 ; verbs taking such, 353 ; predicate adjective, 
and adverb, 354 ; adverbial predicate, 355 ; agreement and rules, 356 - 7. 

Object of the Verb, 358-68: transitive verb and its object, 358-9; intransitives 
and verbs used intransitively, 360-61 ; objects of intransitives, 362; direct and 
indirect object, 363 - 8. 

Objective or Factitive Predicate, 369 - 71. 

Attributive and Appositive Adjective and Noun, 372-9: attributive adjective, 
372 - 4 ; appositive noun, 375 ; appositive adjective, 376 ; attributive noun, 377 ; 
rules, 378; agreement, 379. 

Adverb, 380 - 83. 

Genitive or Possessive Case of Nouns, 384 - 9 : possessive genitive, 384 ; sub- 
jective, objective, and appositive genitive, 385; adjective value of the case, 
386 - 9. 

Adverbial Objective Case of Nouns, 390 - 94. 

Noun used Absolutely, 395-7. 

Prepositional Phrases, 398 - 404 : uses of prepositions, 398 - 400 ; prepositional 
adjective 'and adverb phrases, 401 - 4. 

Summary of the combinations forming a simple sentence, 405 - 6 ; bare and com- 
plete subject and predicate, 407 ; simple, expanded, and compounded sentences, 
408 - 10. 

EXERCISES, for practice in Simple Sentence Constructions, pp. 181-7. 
XIII. Impersonal, collective, and compound subjects. XIV. Predicate noun 
and adjective; adverbial predicate. XV. Objects of the verb; objective predi- 
cate. XVI. Attributive and appositive adjective and noun. XVII. Adverbs. 
XVIII. Possessive case and possessives. XIX. Adverbial objective and nom- 
inative absolute. XX. Prepositional phrases. 

* 

CHAPTER XIV. — Compound and Complex Sentences, 411-37 
(pp. 188-210). 

Filling up and combination of sentences, 411-4; combining words, clauses, 415; 
degrees of combination, 416; independent clauses, compound sentence, 417-9; 
dependent clauses, complex sentence, 420 - 4 ; complex sentences with more 
than one dependent clause, 425; compound-complex sentences, 426; complicated 
sentences, 427 ; summary of rules, 428 ; adjective-clauses, 429 - 30 ; adverb- 
clauses, 431 - 3 : substantive-clauses, 434 - 5 ; omission of that, 436 ; dependent 
clauses of addition, 437. 

EXERCISES, for practice in Compound and Complex Sentences, pp. 201 - 10. 
XXI. Combination and separation of sentences. XXII. Compound sentences : 
independent co-ordinate clauses. XXIII. Complex sentences (with one depend- 
ent clause). XXIV. Complex sentences (with more than one dependent clause) ; 
compound-complex sentences. XXV. Adjective-clauses. XXVI. Adverb-clauses. 
XXVII. Substantive-clauses. XXVIII. Omission of that; dependent clauses of 
addition. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. xi 

CHAPTEE XV. — Infinitive and Participle Constructions, 
438-62 (pp. 211-27). 

Infinitives and Participles, character and use of, 438. 

Infinitives, 439 - 451 : infinitives and infinitive -phrases, 439 ; use and omission of 
the " sign " to, 440 - 1 ; constructions of the infinitive, 442 ; subject, predicate 
noun, 443 ; object, 444 ; after preposition, 445 ; peculiarities of infinitive in ing, 
446-7; adverbial objective, 448; subject to the infinitive, 449; other cases, 450 ; 
agreement, 451. 

Participles, 452-62: participles and participle-phrases, 452; constructions, 453; 
with auxiliaries, 454 ; as attributive adjectives, 455 ; predicate, 456 ; appositive, 
457 - 8 ; infinitive and participle equivalents of clauses, 458 - 60 ; absolute con- 
struction, 461 ; participles used substantively, 462. 

EXERCISES, for practice in Infinitive and Participle Constructions, pp. 
225 - 7 : XXIX. Infinitive constructions. XXX. Participle constructions. 

CHAPTER XYI. — Interrogative and Imperative Sentences, 

463-81 (pp. 228-36). 

The three kinds of sentence, 463 ; interrogative sentence, 464 ; kinds of questions, 
• and their answers, 465 - 9 ; interrogative arrangement, 470 ; inverted conditional 

sentence, 471 ; change of interrogative order, 472 ; kinds of interrogative clause, 

473 ; imperative mode and sentence, 474 - 5 ; kinds of imperative clause, 476 ; 

imperative-phrases, 477 ; other forms of imperative and optative expression, 

478-80; exclamatory interrogative sentence, 481. 
EXERCISES, for practice in Interrogative and Imperative Constructions, 

pp. 234 - 6 : XXXI. Miscellaneous examples. • 

CHAPTER XVII. — Abbreviated and Incomplete Expression, 

482-508 (pp. 237-52). 

Complete and incomplete sentences, 482 ; abbreviation, 483 - 4 ; abbreviation in co- 
ordinate clauses, 485 ; use of conjunctions, compound members of sentence, 
486 - 8 ; abbreviation of dependent clause, 489 - 91 ; in question and answer, 
490 ; substitution for repeated parts of speech, 492 - 3 ; comparative clauses, 
with as and than, 494 ; omission of parts of the sentence, 495 ; various cases, 
496 - 7 ; abbreviation for impressiveness, 498 ; exclamation, 499 - 502 ; interjec- 
tional phrases, 503 ; change of character of words, 504 - 6 ; idioms and their expla- 
nation, 507 - 8. 

EXERCISES, for practice in Abbreviated Expression, pp. 250-2: XXXII. 
Miscellaneous examples. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



CHAPTER I. 
INTRODUCTORY: LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

1. The English language is the language used by the 
people of England, and by all who speak like them any- 
where else in the world ; for example, in the United States. 

2. There are hundreds and hundreds of different languages in 
the world, and the only way we can define any one of them is to 
say : " It is the language used in such and such a region, or by 
such and such people." The people from whom our language 
gets its name are those living in England. Their forefathers 
came to that country from the northern shore of Germany, about 
1500 years ago, and drove out or destroyed the people who had 
lived in the country before, and who had spoken a very different 
language (much like what the Welsh, the language of Wales, is 
nowadays). 

3. Because the English language was brought from Germany 
into England, being then only a dialect of German, it is still very 
much like the languages of Germany, and is for this reason often 
called a Germanic language (or a Teutonic, which means the 
same thing). And all the Germanic languages, along with most 
of the others in Europe, and a part of those of Asia, form a great 
body of languages resembling one another, and hence called a 
"family" — the Indo-European (or the Aryan) family. 

4. The English-speaking people of England were conquered in 
the eleventh century by the Normans, a French-speaking people ; 



2 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. [4- 

and, by the mixture of the two, their speech also came to be 
somewhat mixed, so that a part of our English comes from Ger- 
many and another large part from France, to say nothing of the 
words we have gotten from yet other sources. 

5. The English also conquered and settled other countries : 
the southern part of Scotland, and, a good deal later, most of 
Ireland ; and they have sent out colonies to all parts of the world, 
which of course carried their English language with them, far out 
of England. Some of these colonies have become great nations ; 
so, especially, that in North America has grown and increased 
until it is as numerous a people as the English of England. 
Thus the English language is now used by many more people 
out of England than in it ; but it still keeps everywhere its old 
name. 

6. Our English, however, is by no means the same lan- 
guage that has always gone by that name, nor is it now 
used alike by all the people who speak it. 

7. The language first brought from Northern Germany to Eng- 
land was so different from ours that we should not understand it 
at all if we heard it spoken ; and we cannot learn to read it with- 
out as much study as it costs us, for example, to read French or 
German. The reason is, that every living language is all the 
time changing. Some old words go out of use ; other new words 
come into use ; some change their meaning ; all, or almost all, 
change their pronunciation ; and our phrases, also, the ways in 
which we put words together to express our thoughts, become by 
degrees different. Such changes are sometimes very slow ; but 
they are all the time going on, everywhere. A thousand years 
hence, if it lives so long, the English will be so far unlike what 
it now is that we, if we were to come to life again, should per- 
haps not understand it without a good deal of trouble. 

8. The oldest English that we know anything of, the English 
of the time of King Alfred and thereabouts (a thousand years 
ago), we generally call Anglo-Saxon, to distinguish it from that 



10] THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 3 

of later times ; and there are other names — snch as Old Eng- 
lish, Early English — for the language of times between Alfred's 
and our own. 

"When we say simply " English/' we mean the language 
of our time, such as we ourselves understand and use. 

9. But there are considerable differences in the language 
even of English speakers at the present day. 

Thus, almost every region has some peculiarities in the 
way in which its speakers use their English. 

There are, for example, the peculiarities of the English of Ire- 
land, noticed by us in the Irish emigrant \ those of the English 
of Scotland, seen in the poetry of Burns, the stories of Scott, and 
other such places ; and those of the negro English of the South- 
ern United States. And, in general, an Englishman can tell an 
American, and an American can tell an Englishman, by the way 
he talks. 

When these peculiarities amount to so much that they begin 
to interfere a little with our understanding the persons who have 
them, we say that such persons speak a dialect of English, 
rather than English itself. 

10. Then there is also the difference betw r een what we 
call "good English" and "bad English." 

By good English we mean those words, and those meanings of 
them, and those ways of putting them together, which are used 
by the best speakers, the people of best education ; everything 
which such people do not use, or use in another way, is bad 
English. Thus bad English is simply that which is not approved 
and accepted by good and careful speakers. 

Every one who speaks any language " naturally," as we call it, 
has really learned it from those whom he heard speak around 
him as he was growing up. But he is liable to learn it ill, form- 
ing bad and incorrect habits of speech ; or he may learn it from 
those who have themselves learned it ill, and may copy their bad 



4 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. [10- 

habits. There are, indeed, very few who do not, while they are 
learning to speak, acquire some wrong ways, which they have to 
correct afterwards. 

It is partly in order to help in this process of correcting bad 
habits, that the good and approved usages of a language are col- 
lected and set forth in a book which is called a " grammar." 

11. Hence, the English language, as made the subject of 
a grammar, means the English of the present day, as used 
by good speakers and writers ; and English grammar is a 
description of the usages of the English language in this 
sense. 

A description of one of the earlier forms of English (as the 
Anglo-Saxon, or the Middle English), or of one of the dialects 
of English (as the Scottish, or the Yorkshire, or the negro Eng- 
lish), or of one of the forms of bad English (as the thieves' 
slang), would also be an English grammar, but in a different 
sense ; and we should not call it simply an English grammar, 
but should give it some different name, which would tell pre- 
cisely what it was. 

12. Grammar does not at all make rules and laws for 
language ; it only reports the facts of good language, and in 
an orderly way, so that they may be easily referred to, or 
learned, by any one who has occasion to do so. 

13. Nor is the study of the grammar of one's own native lan- 
guage by any means necessary, in order to correctness of speech. 
Most persons learn good English in the same way that they learn 
English at all, — namely, by hearing and reading ; by hearing and 
imitating good speakers, by studying books written correctly and 
well, by correcting themselves and being corrected by others, and 
so on. But attention to the rules of good usage as laid down in 
grammars, with illustrations and practical exercises, often helps 
and hastens this process ; and it is especially useful to those who 
have been unfortunate enough to learn at first a bad kind of 
English. 



15] THE LEARNING OF LANGUAGE. 5 

14. Then there are many other respects in which the study 
of grammar is useful. 

The learning of language is made up of many different parts ; 
and it is never finished. It begins in infancy, and lasts all our 
lives. The most learned and able never get through with adding 
to their knowledge, even of their own language, and to their 
power to use it. 

At the very beginning of language-learning, we have to learn 
to understand the words which we hear others make. Then we 
learn to make them ourselves, and to put them together cor- 
rectly — that is, in the same way that others do — in order to 
express our thoughts and feelings. A little later, we have to 
learn to understand them as they are put before our eyes, written 
or printed ; and then to make them in the same way, — that is, 
to read and spell and write : and this also correctly, or as other 
people do. But then we want to use our English not only cor- 
rectly, but well, so as to please and influence others. Many of 
us, too, want to learn other languages than English, languages 
which answer the same purposes as our own, but have other 
means of doing it. Or, we want to study some of the other 
forms of English, and to compare them with our own, so as to 
understand better what it is, and how it came to be what it is. 
We are not content, either, with merely using language ; we 
want to know something of what language is, and realize what it 
is worth to us. The study of language has a great deal to tell 
us about the history of man, and of what he has done in the 
world. And as language is the instrument of the mind's opera- 
tions, and the principal means by which they are disclosed, we 
cannot study the mind's workings and its nature without a thor- 
ough understanding of language. 

15. Eor all these purposes, we need to have that sort of 
knowledge of language to which the study of grammar is the 
first step, and to which a study of the grammar of our own lan- 
guage is the easiest and the surest step. 



6 SENTENCE.; PARTS OF SPEECH. [16 



CHAPTER II. 

THE SENTENCE; THE PARTS OP SPEECH. 

16. Our language, like every other, is made up of words. 
Each word has its own particular part to play in the 

work of expressing our thoughts : its own meanings, and its 
own ways of being used along with other words. 

17. Thus, for example, sun, moon, star are the names of 
objects. 

But shine, move, twinkle are of quite another character: 
they are not names ; they are words which we put with 
names like those given above, to state or declare something 
about the objects to which the names belong : as when 
we say 

the sun shines; the moon moves; the stars twinkle. 

The word the, again, in these sentences, is unlike the 
others ; it neither names anything nor declares anything ; 
it is never used except before a name, like sun, etc. 

We may say, further, 

the golden sun shines brightly. 

Here golden and brightly are words of yet other kinds; 
each may be used in its own ways, but not in those of the 
others. And so it is with all our words. 

18. But not every word is different from all the rest in 
its uses. 

There are a great many names of things which we use in the 
same way with sun. 

There are a great many words used in the same way with 
shines, to declare something. 



21] PARTS OF SPEECH. 7 

There are a great many used as golden is used, or brightly. 
The words which are thus used alike we put together 
into classes, and give each class a name. 

19. The classes into which our words are divided, accord- 
ing to their uses, are called the 

i 
PARTS OF SPEECH; 

and every word, as belonging to one or another class, as 
having a certain kind of use, is called a part of speech. 

20. This name, " part of speech," given to a word, plainly 
implies that there is something incomplete about it ; that it 
is not a whole, but must be joined with other " parts " in 
order to make a whole, or in order to be speech. 

That is in fact the case ; and the whole which these parts 
make up is the sentence. 

21. All our speech, as we actually use it in talking or 
writing, is in sentences; we do not really say anything 
unless we make a sentence. 

If, for example, we speak the words sun, tree, ink, goodness, 
he, we are only mentioning something; any one who hears us 
will naturally ask, " Well ; what about it ? " 

So if we say shines, or stands, or writes, or went: the natural 
question is, " What shines 1 " and so on. 

So, too, if we say the, with, golden, brightly, away, tall. 

But if we say 

the sun shines; the tree is tall; 

he writes with ink; they went away; 

we have really said something. It may be very uninteresting ; 
it may be foolish ; it may even be false ; but it is at any rate 
something said ; the person to whom we speak does not need to 
wait for it to be finished in order, to approve or reject it. We 
have thought something and said it ; we have made up our mind 
to some purpose or other and told what it is ; we have (as it is 



8 SENTENCE; PARTS OF SPEECH. [21- 

called) formed an opinion or judgment, and expressed it by a 
sentence. 

A sentence is, then, in the sense thus explained, the ex- 
pression of a judgment. 

22. Strictly speaking, this definition is true only of one kind 
•of sentence : the assektive sentence, as it is called, or that by 

which we assert something, declare something to be so and so. 
There are two other kinds of sentence : one, the interrogative, 
asking a question : thus, 

does the sun shine? 
and the other, the imperative, giving a command : thus, 
shine out brightly, sun! 

But the kind which we have been describing is the regular and 
by far the most common one, and the other two will be best 
treated afterward, as variations of it. 

In going on, therefore, to speak of the sentence, we shall con- 
sider only the first kind, leaving the second and third until later. 

23. In order to form a sentence, we have to use words 
of more than one kind. Every complete act of speech is 
made up of at least two parts of speech. We cannot pro- 
duce a sentence by stringing together words of one sort 
only : for example, 

sun tree ink; shines writes went; 

the this yonder; good golden bright. 

Nor, again, can we take words of different sorts at hap- 
hazard out of a dictionary or spelling-book, and make of 
them sentences — even foolish or false sentences. Thus 

the with golden brightly away; 
shines over is toward tall never. 

This would be like trying to make an instrument, or a 
piece of furniture, out of materials picked up at random, 
and having no adaptation to one another. For a sentence, 



26] SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 9 

there must be not only words of more than one kind, but 
words of certain kinds, fitted together in certain ways. 

24. As the sentence is a combination of words by which 
we declare something to be so and so, or assert that some- 
thing is true about something, there must be in every 
sentence two parts or members : one naming the thing 
about which we make our declaration or assertion, and one 
expressing what we declare or assert of the thing named. 

Thus, in the sentence 

the sun shines, 
the words the sun tell what we make our assertion about, and we 
assert about the sun that it shines: shines expresses what we de- 
clare to be true of the thing expressed by the sun. 

25. These two necessary parts of the sentence we call 
the subject and the predicate (predicate is only a more 
learned and harder name for ' thing asserted or declared '). 

We cannot, in the nature of things, make a complete 
sentence without joining together a subject and a predicate. 
But a sentence does not need to contain more than two 
words, one for each of the two parts or members. For 
example, 

gold glitters; horses run; paper burns; 

George reads ; I stand ; they wrote ; 

are so many complete sentences, the former word in each 
being its subject, and the latter its predicate. 

26. On the other hand, we may use two, or three, or 
many words in naming and describing the thing about 
which we are going to make our assertion, and as many 
more in making the assertion ; and the sentence may still 
be divided into the same two parts. 

Thus, in 

my father's beautiful black horses run every day down the 
hill to the brook for water, 



10 SENTENCE; PARTS OF SPEECH. [26- 

the first five words — my father's beautiful black horses — are 

the subject, because all of them taken together name that about 
which the assertion is made ; and the other eleven words are the 
predicate, because they all combine to form the assertion, telling 
what is done by the horses we have described. 

27. We have, then, this rule : 

A sentence is composed of two parts : 1. the subject, sig- 
nifying that about which the assertion is made ; and 2. the 
predicate, signifying that which is asserted of the subject. 

Now we have to look to see what kinds of words, what par.ts 
of speech, are put together thus to form the simplest sentence, 
the sentence composed of only two words. 

28. A word that can be used as 

glitters, run, burns, reads, stand, wrote 

are used in the little sentences given above, is called a 
verb (the word verb is Latin for '.word' simply). 

A verb is a word that asserts or declares ; and any word 
that does that is a verb. 

Hence, we cannot make a sentence without using a verb ; the 

predicate of the sentence (as we have called it above) must be a 

verb ; and we cannot describe a verb truly except by saying that 

it is a kind of word which goes with the name of something to 

declare, or help declare, something about it ; it can be used as 

the predicate of a sentence. 

This cannot be too much insisted on, as the definitions given of a verb are 
often whoUy erroneous. 

A verb, as we have seen, does not necessarily stand alone as 

predicate ; instead of shines, we can say is shining, or is brilliant, 

or sends down rays, and so on, which mean nearly the same 

thing ; but in these phrases the is and sends are verbs ; words 

like shining, brilliant, rays, cannot make an assertion without a 

verb added. And, of however many words a predicate may be 

composed — as in run every day down the hill to the brook for 



33] VERB; NOUN. 11 

water — it must always have in it, as its essential part, a verb — 
as run : simply because a verb is a word that asserts. 

29. Thus we have the definition : 

A verb is a word that asserts or declares, and hence that 
can stand, alone or with other words, as the predicate of a 
sentence. 

30. When a predicate is composed of two or more 
words, we call the simple verb in it the bare predicate, and 
this along with the rest the complete predicate. 

We shall see hereafter (350) that some verbs are very rarely 
used alone as predicate, but are made complete predicates by 
other words added to them, which are called their complement 
(that is. ' completing part '). And there are no verbs which may 
not take a complement of some kind. 

31. The other w r ords in most of our little sentences of 
two words each — namely, gold, horses, paper, George — 

are each of them what is called a NOUN. 
Noun means simply ' name.' 

All these nouns are names of objects that we can see. Others, 
as sound, noise, thunder, odor, are names of things which we 
perceive by other senses. Yet others, as mind, life, are names of 
what we can only think about, objects of thought. Others still, 
as height, roundness, beauty, courage, are names of the qualities 
of objects. There are many different classes of nouns, but they 
are all alike names, and they can all be used as subject of a sen- 
tence ; they can be put along with a verb to make an assertion ; 
they express anything that we can declare something about. 

32. Thus we have the definition : 

A noun is the name of anything, a word that can stand, 
alone or with other words, as the subject of a sentence. 

33. But while a verb was the only kind of word, or part 
of speech, that could be used as a predicate in a sentence, 
a noun is not the only one that can be used as a subject. 



12 SENTENCE; PARTS OF SPEECH. [33- 

We had also the little sentences 

I stand, they wrote, 
where I and they are subjects ; and these are words of so 
peculiar kind that they are not called nouns, but are made 
a class, or part of speech, by themselves, and are called pro- 
nouns : other words of the class are 

we, you, he, she, it, this, who. 

The word pronoun means ' standing for a noun/ And these 
are, in fact, a kind of additional set of names for objects, which 
may be used instead of the nouns, their ordinary names. They 
do not precisely name objects ; but they point them out, where 
the circumstances show plainly enough what is referred to. Thus, 

instead of saying 

the sun shines, 

we may say 

it shines, 

if we have spoken before of the sun, in a way that makes plain 
what it means. In like manner, having said 

George is studious, 

we may. add 

he reads, 

meaning ' George reads.' Or, speaking to George himself and 
not to any one else, we may say 

you read; 
and George may say, referring to himself, 

I read. 
We can, in this way, say he or she or it of every single object 
that has a name, any object that we can speak of by a noun ; to 
any one that we can speak to, we may say you; and any one 
of them that can speak of itself may call itself I. 

Thus the pronouns are a sort of universal names, or universal 
substitutes, under special circumstances, for ordinary names. 
Accordingly, while there are hundreds and thousands of ordinary 
names, or nouns, there are only a few, a dozen or so, of these 



37] PRONOUN. 13 

substitutes ; but they are used far more often than any nouns 
are used. 

34. Thus we have the definition : 

A pronoun is a word standing for a noun or ordinary 
name, and may, like a noun, be used as subject of a sen- 
tence. 

35. Both nouns and pronouns have other uses besides that of 

standing as subject ; these will be pointed out hereafter. It will 

also be shown that words which are usually other parts of speech 

are sometimes used as if they were nouns. Such a word is then 

said to be used substantively. Substantive is another name 

for a noun. 

The word noun was formerly much used, and is still sometimes used, as a 
name for both nouns and adjectives, the former being distinguished as nouns 
substantive, or substantives, and the latter as nouns adjective, or adjectives. 

36. These three parts of speech — the noun and pro- 
noun on the one hand and the verb on the other — are the 
principal, the independent, ones. They do not need to lean 
on anything else; they can form sentences without help 
from other parts of speech. 

[See Exercise I., at the end of the chapter.] 

Next we have to look at two other kinds of word which are 
of a different character, which do not by themselves, or directly, 
form either the subject or the predicate of a sentence, but only as 
they are put along with something else, to which they belong. 

37. The word the, in 

the sun shines, 

is such a part of speech ; it can only be used along with a 
noun, as an appendage to the noun. Other examples are 
golden and white, in 

the golden sun shines; white paper burns; 

each is added to a noun — sun or paper — to describe the 
thing of which the noun is the name, to express some qual- 
ity as belonging to it. 



14 SENTENCE; PARTS OF SPEECH. [37- 

A word thus used is called an adjective : its name 
adjective signifies merely something ' added ' — that is, 
added to a noun by way of description. 

38. Because the adjective thus defines a quality as be- 
longing to the thing expressed by the noun, it is said to 
qualify the noun. Or, again, as the addition of the adjec- 
tive changes more or less the value of the noun, it is also 
said to modify (that is, ' change somewhat ') the noun. 

Thus, by paper we mean paper in general, without any restric- 
tion ; but to say a paper, or this paper, or white paper, limits 
the application of paper to one particular kind, or it may be one 
particular piece, of paper. 

If, again, we say 

men love pleasures, 

we seem to mean all men and all pleasures ; but if we say 
good men love honest pleasures, 

we make our statement more definite, and therefore narrower ; 
we restrict it to the smaller class of men who are good, leaving 
out the bad, and to the smaller class of pleasures that are honest, 
leaving out the dishonest. 

If, once more, we speak of 

tall stiff black hats, 
we first limit the general name hats to that class of hats that are 
black, then the name black hats to that class that are stiff, then 
the name stiff black hats to that class that are tall ; and we 
might, by putting his before the whole, reduce the still numerous 
class of stiff black hats to the two or three which some particular 
person owns. 

Hence an adjective is also said to limit a noun, or is called a 
limiting word ; it limits simply because it describes or defines. 

39. Thus we have the definition : 

An adjective is a word used to qualify a noun — that is, 
to describe or limit the meaning of a noun. 



41] ADJECTIVE. 15 

40. There is no assertion or declaration implied in an 
adjective, any more than in a noun ; a noun and an adjec- 
tive joined together will never make a sentence : thus, 

sun golden, stars shining, enemies beaten. 

But we can make either an adjective or a noun a part of 
the assertion about a noun or pronoun, if we join the two 
together by a verb (28). The verb which we especially use 
for this purpose is be. Thus, for example, 

the sun is golden; his stiff black hat was tall; 

this paper is white; the man was a soldier; 

their hats are black; we were Roman citizens. 

A word which in this way, by help of a verb, is made a 
part of the predication or assertion about a subject, is called 
a predicate adjective or noun (352). 

An adjective used as predicate qualifies a pronoun as freely as 
a noun : thus, 

he is white; it was tall ; 

we are beaten; they were running. 

[See Exercise II., at the end of the chapter.] 

41. There is also another class of words, used to qualify 
or describe the other member of the simple sentence, the 
verb. If we say 

the sun shines brig htly, or shines now, or shines above, 
the words brightly, now, above tell something about the 
manner, or place, or time, of the action expressed by shines ; 
they describe or limit, in one way or another, the shining 
which we have asserted of the sun. So in 

horses run swiftly, George reads sometimes, 

he stands there, 
the words swiftly, sometimes, and there are used in the 
same way to define the action or condition asserted by the 
verb. 



16 SENTENCE; PARTS OF SPEECH. [41- 

A word thus used is called an adverb, because it is added 
to a verb, in much the same way and for the same purpose 
as the adjective is added to the noun. 

But most adverbs are also capable of being used to qualify 
adjectives : thus, 

the brightly shining sun, a truly faithful friend, 
a very cold day, a perhaps false report; 

and some even qualify another adverb : thus, 

very brightly shining, quite often seen. 

42. We have, then, the definition : 

An adverb is a -word used to qualify a verb, or also an 
adjective, and sometimes another adverb. 

43. The adjective and the adverb are thus the two parts 
of speech which are used to accompany, to describe or 
qualify or limit, another word. 

[See Exercise III., at the end of the chapter.] 

Then there are also two parts of speech which are used 
to connect other words together, and even to connect sen- 
tences together. 

44. We noticed above only one of the uses of the noun 
or pronoun, namely, that of serving as subject of a sentence. 
Now we have also to observe that a noun or pronoun can 
be used like an adjective to qualify another noun, or like an 
adverb to qualify a verb or adjective, if it be connected with 
the word which it is to qualify by a word like of, to, from, 
in, with, by, and so on. 

Thus, 



is the same thing as 
is the same as 



a box of wood 

a wooden box; 

a man i n distress 

a distressed man; 



45] PREPOSITION. 17 

an emigrant from Ireland 

is the same as 

an Irish emigrant; 

he walks with grace 
is the same thing as 

he walks gracefully; 

he speaks with distinctness 

is the same as 

he speaks distinctly: 

and in 

good for food, faithful till death, tired of walking, 

the qualification of the adjective is quite of the same kind as 
would be made by an adverb. 

These connecting words, now, are called prepositions; 
the word means simply 'placed before'; and they are in 
fact usually placed before the noun or pronoun which they 
are to connect to another word (just as they are often pre- 
fixed to a verb, or placed before it, to make a compound 
verb — as in withstand, outvie, underlie). 

45. Each preposition makes the noun or pronoun which it 
joins on to another word qualify that other in some particular 
way : that is, it defines a certain kind of relation as existing be- 
tween the two words. Thus, of most often shows possession, or 
connects the name of a possessor with that of a thing possessed, 

as in 

the palace of the king; 

by shows the relation of nearness, as in 

he sits by the wall, 

or of means, as in 

he lives by begging; 

from shows the* relation of removal, as in 

far from home; 
under and over show relations of place, as in 

the picture hangs under the ceiling over the table; 

and so on. 



18 SENTENCE; PARTS OF SPEECH. [45- 

And the prepositions are used with pronouns just as with 
nouns : thus, 

I went with him; good for her; 

far from you ; some of us. 

46. Thus we have the definition : 

A preposition is a word which joins a noun or pronoun to 
some other word — a verb, an adjective, another noun or pro- 
noun — showing the relation between them. 

A preposition is not quite so distinctly definable as the preceding parts of 
speech ; it is best understood by help of much illustration, using the common- 
est words of the class, like of, from, to, in, by, with, for. 

[See Exercise IV., at the end of the chapter.] 

47. The other kind of connecting word is called a con- 
junction : that is, a word that 'conjoins' or 'joins together.' 

Its most customary and proper use is to join different 
sentences together : thus, 

he went a nd I came; 
we spoke but they said nothing; 
she blushed because she was ashamed; 
she played while they danced. 
Sometimes, like and and but in these sentences, the conjunc- 
tion does hardly more than add one sentence on to another; 
sometimes, like because and while, it shows the second sentence 
to stand in a certain relation to the first : a relation of which 
the nature is defined or made clear by the conjunction. Thus 
because shows she was ashamed to be the cause of the blush- 
ing ; while shows the dancing to have accompanied the playing; 
and so on. 

But some of the most common conjunctions, especially 
and. are also used to connect in the same sentence words 
that are the same part of speech and are used in the same 
way in the sentence : thus, 
he and I came; a great and good man; 

a proud though childlike form; poor but honest parents ; 
by and with their consent. 



51] INTERJECTION. 19 

48. Thus we have the definition : 

A conjunction is a word used to connect sentences together ; 
or, also, words used in the same way in a sentence. 

[See Exercise V., at the end of the chapter.] 

49. The seven kinds of words thus described and defined are 
the parts of speech ; there are no other classes having a use in 
forming sentences different enough from these to make us classify 
them as separate parts of speech. As we have seen already, they 
fall among themselves into three well-marked divisions : these are 

1. The three independent parts of speech, the noun, the 
pronoun, and the verb, capable of forming sentences without 
the others ; 

2. The two qualifiers, adjective and adverb, always attached 
to some other word, which they describe or limit ; and 

3. The two connectives, preposition and conjunction, 
which join one word or sentence to another. 

50. But we must notice here that there is yet another 
class of words, used in exclamation, which are usually 
reckoned as a part of speech, and called interjections. 
Examples of them are 

oh! ah! fie! pshaw! hola ! 

The name interjection signifies something that is interjected, 
or ' thrown into the midst of' something else ; and this something 
else is the sentence, as made up of the other parts of speech. 

Calling them thus, then, implies that they are not parts of the 
sentence itself; they are not put together with other parts to 
make up sentences. And this is in fact the case. Hence, though 
it is proper enough, because convenient, to call the interjections 
a part of speech, they are not so in the same sense as the others. 
Each interjection is in a certain way an undivided sentence, put 
in the language of feeling rather than in that of reason. 

51. We add, then, the definition : 

An interjection is an exclamation, expressive of feeling ; it 
does not combine with other words to form a sentence, and 
so is not in the same sense with the rest a part of speech. 



20 SENTENCE; PARTS OF SPEECH. [52-55 

52. Sometimes the little words a or an and the, which are 
called the articles, are reckoned as a separate part of speech ; 
but, as they always qualify nouns, they are really only a peculiar 
kind of adjective. 

Again, the words one, two, three, and so on, which we call 
numerals, because they express number, or are used in numerat- 
ing or counting, have also their peculiarities; yet they are no 
part of speech by themselves, because their uses are always those 
either of nouns or of adjectives. 

And we shall have to notice hereafter one or two other such 
cases. 

53. As noticed above (23), we use, besides the assertive, 
sentences of two other kinds, interrogative and imperative, 
or questions and commands. 

54. By an interrogative sentence, or question, we ex- 
press a desire to know something. But, instead of putting 
it in the form of a statement, ' I desire to know/ or ' I wish 
you to tell me/ such and such a thing, we make known our 
wish by a peculiar form of sentence : usually by putting the 
subject noun or pronoun after the verb : thus, 

have you any fish? was he there? will she go? 

There are also special classes of interrogative words (see 
below, 169, 209, 313 e), pronouns or adjectives or adverbs, 
which have in themselves a question-asking meaning : thus, 

who was there? why did he come? 

by what route did he arrive? 

55. By an imperative sentence we express our will or 

wish that a thing be so and so; we give a command to 

somebody. This is done by using a certain form of the 

verb, hence called the imperative mode (below, 233) : 

thus, 

give me the fish! go away from here! 



chap, ii.] EXERCISES. 21 

EXERCISES TO CHAPTER II. 

FOR DETERMINING ANB DEFINING THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

The sentences in all the exercises given are to be divided by the 
pupils into subject and predicate ; if written, the division may con- 
veniently be made by drawing a perpendicular line between the two: 

thus, 

the sun I shines; he ! writes with ink. 

If either the subject or the predicate contains more than one word, 
the bare subject, the subject noun or pronoun, and the bare predicate, 
the verb, should be pointed out ; if written, they may be underscored: 
thus, 

the bright stars I twinkle ; the rain i falls from the cloud. 

In the exercises on this chapter, the part of speech of each word 
in every sentence is to be stated, and the reason or definition for it 
given. 

I. Bare subject and predicate: §§ 16-36. 

Fire burns. Winds blow. Gold glitters. Stars twinkle. I 
walk. He rides. Boys run. Girls dance. Wheat grows. They 
fly. Time flies. Children sing. Doors swing. Clocks tick. Bain 
falls. Smoke rises. Heat melts. She came. It shone. We 
looked. 

II. With adjectives added: §§ 37-40. 

The cold winds blow. The winds are cold. The hot fire burns. 
It is hot. A pelting rain falls. Happy boys run. These chil- 
dren sing. These girls are happy. Life is short. The yellow 
gold glitters. The day is rainy. The night was dark. He was 
riding. You are walking. The old clock ticks. I am hungry. 

III. With adverbs added: §§41-43. 

Cold winds blow keenly. This fire is very hot. Your chil- 
dren sing sweetly. The hungry dog barked suddenly. I walk 
often. We ride seldom. This rainy night is exceedingly dark. 
The day is very unusually hot. Leaves fall down. The old 
wooden clock ticks always loudly. 

IV. With prepositions added: §§44-46. 

The bright stars twinkle in the sky. The boy ran fast after 
the ball. We go to school. She stays sometimes at home. The 



22 SENTENCE; PARTS OF SPEECH. [chap. 

dark smoke rises in the air from the tall chimney. The leaf 
fell from the tree to the ground. The night is dark" with clouds. 
He rides on his horse. A hot fire of coals is burning. The dogs 
barked loudly in the distant village. A clock of wood ticked on 
the wall. The clouds are heavy with rain. Ice melts soon in 
the heat of the fire. The happy children of our teacher sing 
sweetly enough from their book of hymns. The winds of winter 
are cold. 

V. With conjunctions: §§47-48. 

In writing out and dividing into subject and predicate such sen- 
tences as are connected by conjunctions, the dividing lines of the two 
(or more) sentences may be set one above the other, and the conjunc- 
tion between them : thus, 

we I laughed loudly, the bright stars I twinkle 

but when 

they I were silent. the sky I te clear. 

I went to school and she stayed at home. The dog barked at 
the boy, and he ran away. They listened with attention while I 
spoke to them. The day is warm if the sun shines. He sang till 
he was hoarse and we were tired. The smoke rises in the air 
because it is light. The boy went to the playground when the 
bell rang. He and I go to school together. The white snow 
lies on the high hills and in the deep valleys. You ride on the 
road, but we walk through the fields. 

Scholars should be made to form, by themselves or under the direction of 
the teacher, many illustrative sentences of the same kind as those given here. 
Especially, they should be practised in making a bare sentence of two words as 
a starting-point, and filling it out by adding other parts of speech to its subject 
and predicate, defining the character and purpose of each addition as made. 

VI. Miscellaneous examples on the chapter. 

In order that the sentences maybe properly divided into subject 
and predicate, they should, if necessary, be re-arranged, the words 
being put into the more usual order. Thus : 

The glimmering landscape I fades now on the sight; 

Tumult and affright I was by the yellow Tiber. 

The borrower is servant to the lender. 
Procrastination is the thief of time. 
Grace was in all her steps. 



ii.] EXERCISES. 23 

Out of the abundance of the heart the mouth speaketh. 

No work is a disgrace ; the true disgrace is idleness. 

Stolen waters are sweet, and bread eaten in secret is pleasant. 

The child is father to the man. 

Surely in vain the net is spread in the sight of any bird. 

The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea. 

Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight. 

The paths of glory lead but to the grave. 

By the yellow Tiber was tumult and affright. 

Industry is the road to wealth. 

Above it stood the seraphs. 

The morning-stars sang together, and all the sons of God shouted 

for joy. 

We silently gazed on the face of the dead, 

And we bitterly thought of the morrow. 

Soft and pale is the moony beam, 
Moveless still is the glassy stream ; 
The wave is clear ; the beach is bright 

With snowy shells and sparkling stones ; 
The shore-surga comes in ripples light. 

An hour passed on ; the Turk awoke ; 
That bright dream was his last. 

The way was long ; the wind was cold ; 

The minstrel was infirm and old. 



24 INFLECTION. [56 



CHAPTER III. 

INFLECTION. 

56. We have learned now to distinguish the parts of 
speech, according to the different ways in which they are 
used when we put words together to make a sentence. 

Next we have to notice certain changes of form which 
some of them undergo, according to differences in their 
meaning, or differences in the connection in which they are 
used. 

57. Let us take as examples the little sentences : 

the man learns; I go; 

the horse runs; he was. 

Here man and horse are nouns (32), and I and he are pro- 
nouns (34), and each noun has before it an article (52) ; and 
each noun or pronoun is the subject (27) of the sentence in 
which it is used. And learns, runs, go, was are verbs (29), and 
each is the predicate (27) in its own sentence. 

Now every one of these words may change its form a 
little, in order to mean something a little different from 
what it now means. 

58. Thus, if we want to speak not of one man only, but 
of more than one, we alter the sound of it (and hence also 
the spelling), and say men. 

If we want to speak of more than one horse, we add 
another syllable, ending with s, and say horses. 

If, instead of myself alone, I speak of a number of per- 
sons of whom I am one, I change I to we, and say we go. 
And in the same way we change he to they. 



59] NUMBER. 25 

Here, then, is a set of changes in the form of nouns and 
pronouns, made in order to show a difference in the number 
of objects meant, whether a single one or more than one. 
Hence we call it a change for number ; and we say that 
man, horse, I, and he are of the singular number (singular 
means 'single'), and that men, horses, we, and they are 
of the plural number (plural comes from the Latin word 
plus, 'more/ and so means 'more than one '). 

What is true of these nouns and pronouns is true also of 
nearly all the rest ; we do not use precisely the same' word 
when we mean one and when we mean more than one. 
Other examples are 

book, books; mind, minds; eye, eyes; beauty, beauties; 

ox, oxen; foot, feet; mouse, mice; she or it, they; 

this, these; that, those. 

That is to say, our nouns and pronouns in general have 
two number-forms, one singular and the other plural. 

59. But if in these little sentences we use the plural 
forms as subjects instead of the singular, we cannot always 
use the same forms of the verb as predicates : thus, com- 
pare 

the man learns; the men learn; 

the horse runs; the horses run; 

he was; they were; 

although, in the other case, we say both 
I go and we go. 

This change in the verb, when it is made, does not, it is true, 
show a difference of meaning in the same sense as the change in 
the noun ; for we cannot really say that the act of learning or 
running, or the condition of being, is in itself different according 
as one person or thing, or more than one, take part in it. The 
change is, rather, a mere consequence of the change of meaning 
of the nouns. We have sometimes (not by any means always) 



26 INFLECTION. [59- 

different forms of our verbs,' one of which we are accustomed to 
use along with a singular subject, and another along with a 
plural subject. It would be just as much a violation of good 
English usage to say 

the man learn, the men learns, 

he have, they has, 

I are, we am, 

and the like, as to use man and he and I when we mean . more 
than one person, or men and they and we when we mean only 
one. 

60. We say, therefore, that the verb also has sometimes 
two forms, one for use with a subject that is singular, and 
the other for use with a subject that is plural ; and these 
forms we call the singular and plural number-forms of "the 
verb itself. 

And, as the distinction of their use does not depend on 
anything in the meaning of the verb itself, but only on the 
character of the subject, we speak of the subject, whether 
noun or pronoun, as directing or governing in the matter ; 
the subject being given, the verb is compelled to agree 
with it in respect to number. 

These words, government and agreement, are much used in 
grammar, and this is their simple meaning. 

There is yet another matter in relation to which they have 
to be used about the verb and its subject. 

61. If we use as subjects the three pronouns, I, thou, he 
(or she or it), the verb used along with each is generally 
different : thus, 

I learn ; thou learnest ; .he learns. 

Here, again, there is nothing changed in the action of 
learning signified by the verb ; the real change is only in 
the character of its subject. I is always used by a person 
speaking, to signify himself; thou, to signify the person to 



64] PERSON; TENSE. 27 

whom he is speaking ; he. (or she or it), to signify any per- 
son (or thing) other than himself or than the person to 
whom he is speaking — that is, any person or thing spoken 
of. This difference in the pronouns is called a difference 
of PERSON; and, in order to distinguish them from one 
another, we call (153) I the pronoun of the first person, 
thou (or you) the pronoun of the second person, and he 
(or she or it) the pronoun of the third person. 

62. Hence we say, as before, that the verb has some- 
times three person-forms, for use with subjects of the first, 
second* and third persons respectively ; and these forms we 
call the first, second, and third persons of the verb itself. 

And here, again, it is the subject that governs, or deter- 
mines what the form of the verb must be, in respect to 
person as well as number; the subject being given, the 
verb is made to agree with it in both person and num- 
ber. 

63.. A verb, we may notice here, is of the first or of the 
second person only when its subject is a pronoun of the first 
or of the second person. Every noun has the verb in the third 
person : thus, 

John learns; Mary learns; the dog learns. 

64. But the verb has also (as well as the noun) changes 

of form to mark real differences of meaning. Our verbs 

learns, runs, go (in the sentences given as examples above) 

have to be altered if we wish distinctly to say that the 

actions of learning, running, going took place some time 

ago, at some moment in the past. In that case, we should 

say 

the man learned; the horse ran; I went. 

Thus we make by a change of form of the verb a dis- 
tinction of the time of the action, as past or present. This 
is called a distinction of tense (the name tense is an al- 



28 INFLECTION. [64- 

tered form of the Latin word for ' time/ tempus) ; and 
learns, runs, go are said to be of the present tense, while 
learned, ran, went are said to be of the past or preterit 
tense {preterit is a Latin word for ' gone by, past '). 

The use of the different tenses of the verb does not 
depend, like that of the different numbers and persons, on 
the character of any other word with which the verb is 
joined, but only on the difference of the meaning which 
we want to express. 

65. One other difference of meaning is made, much less 
often, by a change in the form of the verb. We say 

he was here, 
but if he were here, I should be glad; 

he is angry, 
but though he be angry, he will not show it; 

he learns his lesson, 
but whether he learn it or not I do not care. 

This is called a distinction of mode (or mood ; it is a 
Latin word meaning 'manner ') : that is, of the manner of 
viewing the action expressed by the verb, whether as 
actual or as doubtful, questionable, dependent on a condi- 
tion. And were, be, learn in these sentences are said to 
be of the subjunctive mode {subjunctive meaning 'sub- 
joined/ in the sense of ' dependent ') ; while, as distin- 
tinguished from them, the forms was, is, learns are said 
to be of the indicative mode (simply ' pointing out ' or 
stating). 

The subjunctive was used in English a great deal more for- 
merly than it is used at present (234). 

The form of the verb used in imperative sentences (55)" 
is also called the imperative mode (233). 

66. This change in the form of any word, either to show 



69] CONJUGATION; CASE. 29 

changes of its own meaning or to adapt it to be used along 
with the different forms of other words, is called its inflec- 
tion (the name means "bending into a different shape,' 
adaptation) ; and the word thus varied in form is said to be 

INFLECTED. 

We have noticed now all the varieties of meaning and 
use for which the verb in our language is thus changed 
in form, or inflected. The inflection of a verb is usually 
called its conjugation (the name means only a 'joining 
together ' of the various verb-forms) ; and the verb is said 

to be CONJUGATED. 

67. We sum this up by saying : 

Inflection, is the change of form of a word, depending on 
differences of its meaning and use. 

The verb is inflected to show differences of person, of 
number, of tense, and of mode; and this inflection is called 
its conjugation* 

68. Of nouns and pronouns we have already noticed 
that kind of inflection which expresses difference of num- 
ber (as man, men ; horse, horses ; I, we). 

But this is not their only change. If John has or owns 
or possesses a book, we call it 

John's book, 

adding an s to the name to 'mark the person as being the 
possessor of the thing ; and so we speak also of 

a man's deeds, men's souls, children's pleasures, 

and so on. This form of a noun, usually made by adding 
an 's, we are accustomed to call its possessive case, be- 
cause it most often shows possession ; it corresponds to the 
so-called genitive case of other languages, and is just as 
properly itself called "genitive." 

69. The genitive or possessive case of a noun has very nearly 



30 INFLECTION. [69- 

the sarrie meaning which the noun has with the preposition of 
before it ; thus, 

men's souls, and the souls of men; 

children's pleasures, and the pleasures of children. 

That is to say, the same relation of one noun to another which 
is expressed by connecting it with that other by the preposition 
of (in one of its senses), may also often be expressed by putting' 
the noun itself in the genitive case. And sundry other relations, 
which we now express only by means of other prepositions, were 
formerly expressed in . our language, and are still expressed in 
other languages, by other cases, or changed forms of the noun, 
no longer in use with us (see 399). 

70. The pronouns also have the possessive case, like 

nouns : thus, 

he, his; it, its; who, whose; 

and the case sometimes has a very different form from that 
which is usual with nouns : as 

I, my or mine; she, her; they, their. 

But most pronouns have another, a third, case-form . ; and 
this we have next to examine. 

TL Both nouns and pronouns are capable of standing in 

another relation to a verb than that of its subject. If we 

say 

the man reads books ; John drives a horse ; 

books and horse are nouns, though neither of them is 
subject in its sentence. Books, for example, belongs to 
the predicate of the first sentence, because it is a part of 
what is asserted about man, the subject; the assertion is 
not that he reads simply, but that he reads books. The 
asserted general action of reading is limited, is made more 
definite, by pointing out on what particular class of things 
it is exercised. 

A word added to a verb in this way is called the object 



73] CASE. 31 

of the verb, because it signifies the person or thing that 
directly endures, or is the object of, the action expressed by 
the verb. As we shall see later (223, 358, etc.), a part of 
our verbs do, and others do not, admit such an addition. 
Further examples are 

they learn their lessons; I see an elephant; 

he told a story. 

72. Now most of the pronouns have a different form 
when used as object of a verb from that which they have 
as subject. 

Thus, in 

I see him and he sees me, 

we love them and they love us, 

the pairs of words 

I and me, he and him, 

we and us, they and them, 

are the corresponding subject and object forms of the same pro- 
nouns ; and other examples are 

thou and thee, she and her, who and whom. 

This also we call a variation of case ; and we call the form 
that is used as object the objective case (or often the 
accusative, that being the old Latin name for the same 
thing). And then the form used as subject we call, to dis- 
tinguish it from the possessive and objective, the subjec- 
tive case — or, more usually, the nominative (the old 
Latin name ; it means simply ' naming '). 

73. When a pronoun is connected with some other word 
by a preposition (46), we always use the objective case of 
it, just as when it is the object of a verb : for example, 

I know him and hear from him; 
we love them and write to them; 
he that is not with us is against us. 



32 - INFLECTION. [73- 

And because the preposition seems to exert a kind of 
action upon the word which it thus attaches to something 
else, we call that word the object of the preposition. 

74. There is no noun in our language which really has 
an objective case, a form different from the nominative, and 
used when the noun is object either of a verb or of a prep- 
osition. Thus, we say 

the father loves the son and the son loves the father, 

the father went with the son and the son went with the father, 

without any change of the words father and son ; and so in 
all other like cases. 

Still, partly by analogy with the pronouns, and partly 
because many other languages related with English, and 
even the English itself in earlier times, do distinguish the 
object from the subject in nouns as well as in pronouns, 
we usually speak of nouns as having an objective case, 
only one that is always the same with the nominative. 

And we speak of both verbs and prepositions as govern- 
ing- in the objective the word that is their object, because 
it is compelled to be put in that case after them, and be- 
cause its relation to them, rather than any difference of 
meaning which we feel in the word itself, is the reason of 
its being made objective. 

75. These are all the changes which make up the inflec- 
tion of the noun and pronoun. As they are of another 
kind than those of the verb, they go by a different name ; 
they are called the declension of the noun or pronoun, 
which is said to be declined. 

We sum up by saying : 

The noun and pronoun are inflected to show differences of 
ease and of number, and this inflection is called their de- 
clension. 



78] COMPARISON. 33 

76. The adjective has no such inflection as the noun. 
In general, whatever the number and whatever the case of 
the noun it qualifies, it remains unchanged. Thus, we say- 
good man and good men, 

and both of them either as subject or as object ; and we 

say also 

a good man's reward and good men's deeds, 

where the qualified nouns are in the possessive. 

But we have two words used as adjectives (they are also pro- 
nouns : see 166), namely this and that, which change their form 
according as the noun they qualify is singular or plural : thus, 

this man, but these men; that horse, but those horses. 

In many other languages, and even in the older English, something like this 
is the general rule ; an adjective changes its form, not only according to the 
number, but also according to the case, of the noun which it qualifies ; thus 
making the noun govern the adjective, or requiring the adjective to agree with 
the noun, in number and case, just as the verb (62) agrees'with its subject in 
number and person. 

77. But many adjectives have a variation of form to 
express a greater degree and a greatest degree of the qual- 
ity which the adjective expresses. Thus, 

a tall man, a taller man, the tallest man; 

a bright day, a brighter day, the brightest day-. 

These three forms are called the degrees of comparison 
of the adjective, which is said to be compared. Such forms 
as greater, brighter are said to be of the comparative de- 
gree, and such as greatest, brightest, of the superlative 
degree ; and then, in distinction from these, the simple un- 
altered adjective, like great, bright, is said to be of the 
positive degree. 

78. Strictly, this change of the adjective is rather a matter of derivation (see 
the next chapter) than of inflection. But it is usually , because more conven- 
iently, called inflection, and treated of along with the declension of the noun 
and pronoun and the conjugation of the verb. 



34 INFLECTION. [78- 

Hence we sum up by saying : 

The adjective is sometimes inflected to show differences of 
degree; the inflection of an adjective is called its compari- 
son. 

79. Of the remaining parts of speech, the preposition and 
the conjunction have no variation of form at all, of the kind 
here called inflection : they are called uninflected, or IN- 
vakiable ; or they are known as indeclinables. 

And so it is for the most part with the adverbs ; only a 
few adverbs, either adjectives used also as adverbs or words 
resembling those, have a comparison like that of the adjec- 
tive : thus, 

much, more, most; ill, worse, worst; 

soon, sooner, soonest. 

80. We add, then, finally : 

Adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions are not inflected — 
except that a few adverbs have a comparison like that of 
adjectives. 

81. We have thus noticed in a general way all the kinds of 
inflection of which English words are capable. By and by we 
shall have to take up each part of speech by itself, and explain 
its inflectional changes more fully. But before leaving the 
general subject, we will observe the methods of the change thus 
made in the words inflected. 

82. In the first place, the inflectional change is generally 
made by adding something on at the end of a word. 

Thus, from horse come horse's and horses, by an added s; so 
from book come book's and books ; and so on. 

From love come I o vest and loves and loved, by similar addi- 
tions. 

From tall come taller and tallest, from soon come sooner and 
soonest, in the same way. 

Much the largest part of the inflection of English words is of this kind. And 
those who have studied the history of the languag*e ; and seen how it came to be 



B7] METHODS OF INFLECTION. % 35 

what it is, find that the other kinds are in origin only the consequences and 
alterations of this. 

83. In the second place, some words are inflected without 
any additions made to them, but by changes made in them, 
alterations of the sounds of which they are composed. 

Thus, from man comes the plural men; from run comes the 
past or preterit ran, from Jead comes led, and from send comes 
sent ; from much come the comparative and superlative more and 
most ; and so on. 

84. In the third place, in inflecting some words we both add 
something and alter the sound of the original word. 

Thus, from kneel we either form the preterit by an addition, 
kneeled, or by a different addition and a change of sound, knelt; 
so either brothers or brethren from brother; so children from 
child; so does and says from do and say; and many more. 

85. In the fourth place, where, most words have some kind 
of change in themselves for inflection, a few substitute what 
seem to be, or really are, wholly different words. 

Thus, we have the possessive her and plural they from she ; 
and in like manner my and we and us from I; we have the 
preterits was from am, and went (which is really the preterit of 
wend, like sent from send) from go. 

Of course, this is not real inflection at all, but another kind of change, which 
takes the place of it. 

86. Finally, where some words are inflected, others, of the 
same class, remain unchanged. 

Thus, unlike man and horse, sheep is the same in the plural 
as in the singular; he and she form special objective cases, but 
it is the same in nominative and objective ; unlike love and run, 
set and put have the same form in the preterit tense as in the 
present ; and so on. Such inconsistencies and irregularities are 
found more or less in every language. 

87. In describing the inflection of any word, we take for 
a starting-point that form which is usually the simplest and 



36 INFLECTION. [chap. 

briefest, and we treat the others as made from that by vari- 
ous alterations. This simplest form is called the BASE OF 
INFLECTION (other names for it are theme, stem, crude- 
form). In nouns and pronouns it is the same with the 
nominative singular ; in adjectives and adverbs, the posi- 
tive ; in verbs, the infinitive (237). But the base of in- 
flection of verbs is also called the root. 



EXERCISES TO CHAPTER III. 

FOR PRACTICE IN INFLECTION. 

The exercises given with the second chapter may be again taken up, and the 
sentences varied by changing the number of the nouns, the number and per- 
son of the pronouns, the tense of the verbs, and the degree of the adjectives. 
Changes in the verbs resulting from changes in the number and person of its 
subject should be carefully noted. Also, those words which admit of no inflec- 
tional change of form should be observed and pointed out. 

Additional examples for practice — bringing in, especially, possessive and ob- 
jective cases — are as follows : 

VII. Miscellaneous Examples. 

A wise son maketh a glad father. 

A soft answer turneth away wrath. 

In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth. 

On her white breast a sparkling cross she wore. 

Order is heaven's first law. 

Honest plain words best pierce the ear of grief. 

Fame's flight is glory's fall. 

Time writes no wrinkles on thy azure brow. 

A man's manners often influence his fortune. 

We tell thy doom without a sigh. 

Every turf beneath their feet 
Shall be a soldier's sepulchre. 

For his gayer hours she has a voice of gladness. 
I bring fresh showers for the thirsting flowers. 
The curfew tolls the knell of parting day. 



in.] EXERCISES. 37 

Full many a gem, of purest ray serene, 
The dark unfathomed caves of ocean bear. 

Honor is virtue's reward. 

Charity covereth a multitude of sins. 

Richer by far is the heart's adoration. 

Coming events cast their shadows before. 

Long looked the anxious squires; their eye 
Could in the darkness naught descry. 
At length the freshening western blast 
Aside the shroud of battle cast ; 
And first the ridge of mingled spears 
Above the brightening cloud appears, 
And in the smoke the pennons flew. 

Stillest streams oft water fairest meadows. 

Love denies rest to my soul and slumber to my eyes. 



38 DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION. [88 



CHAPTER IV. 

DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION. 

88. We saw in the last chapter that English words are 
altered in various ways, in order to express differences of mean- 
ing, or on account of connection with other words ; and we 
called these changes inflectional. 

It might have been said properly enough that these altered 
forms are derived from what we called the base of inflection by 
certain additions or other changes. Thus, horses is derived from 
horse by adding an s-sound ; men from man, by giving a differ- 
ent sound to the vowel in the middle of it; sent" from send, by 
altering its last sound ; and so on. 

But there is another set of changes, never called inflectional, 
to which the name derivation is more usually and properly 
given : namely, the changes by which one base of inflection 
is made from another; and these are what we have next to 
look at. 

89. The word true is an adjective, because (39) it is used to 
qualify a noun : we say 

true stories, a true friend, 

and so on ; and we compare it (78), saying 

truer stories than those he told before ; 
the truest friend that ever lived: 

this is, as we saw before, the only inflectional change which an 
adjective can undergo. 

But we may also add the sound th to the same adjective, 
making truth. In this new word the idea of true is still plain ; 
but the change which we have made has produced a new part 
of speech, a noun : we can put an adjective before it, as 

real truth; 



92] DERIVATIVE WORDS. 39 

we can put a verb after it, as 

truth honors its speaker; 
we can put a preposition before it, as 

he spoke with truth. 

90. In such a case as this, the noun is said to be derived 
from the adjective; the process of making it is called deri- 
vation, and it is itself called a derivative, or a derivative 
noun ; and the word from which it is made is called its primitive 
(which means here ' predecessor, more original'). And the 
addition th that makes the derivative is called a noun-making 
suffix (suffix means ' fixed or fastened on at the end '). 

There are many nouns made from adjectives in our language 
by the same suffix, often along with some change of sound in 
the adjective itself: thus, 

warmth from warm, wealth from well, 

length from long, width from wide, 

breadth from broad, health from hale, 

filth f lorn foul. 

91. This derived noun truth we can then turn again into an 
adjective, by adding to it the adjective-making suffix ful : thus, 
truthful ; the word means nearly, though not precisely, the same 
as true. It is plain enough here that what we call the suffix ful 
is really nothing but the common adjective full, and that truthful 
is nearly the same as full of truth. 

The adjectives that are derived from nouns by adding ful to 
them are a very large number : thus, 

faithful, sorrowful, disdainful, tearful, careful, wilful. 

92. But this derived adjective truthful we can turn once 
more into a noun by adding another noun-making suffix, namely 
ness: thus, truthfulness. We might define truthfulness to mean 
'the quality of being truthful] just as truth sometimes means, 
'the quality of being true. 1 

The English nouns which are derived from adjectives by 



40 DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION. [92- 

adding ness are still more numerous than the adjectives which 
are derived from nouns by adding ful. Examples are 

calmness, fatness, godliness, heaviness, foolishness, 
faithfulness, faithlessness, suitableness, disinterestedness. 

93. In the same way, taking foul as our starting-point, we 
may form filth, 'the quality of being foul/ or 'what is foul'; 
then, by another suffix than ful for making adjectives from 
nouns, filthy, 'marked with filth 7 (like mighty, funny, watery, 
and so on) ) and, again, filthiness, ' the quality of being filthy.' 

Or, we might have added ness directly to the primitive ad- 
jective foul, forming foulness, 'the quality of being foul': 
although we do not say trueness, any more than we say truthy 
like filthy, or filthful like truthful. 

No real reason can be given for such differences ; it is simply the case that 
the one is customary, or what we are used to, and not the other. 

94. Again, both our adjectives true and foul we can turn 
into adverbs (42), by adding the adverb-making suffix ly : thus, 

truly, foully. 

And we can treat in the same way the derived adjectives truthful 

and filthy: thus, 

truthfully, filthily. 

In fact, there are' not many adjectives in the language from 
which we cannot derive adverbs by this adverb-making suffix, 
and a large part of our adverbs are made by it. 

But the same suffix ly also makes quite a number of adjectives 
from nouns : examples are 

manly, brotherly, homely. 

95. Verbs also are derived from nouns and adjectives by 
verb-making suffixes : thus, freshen from the adjective fresh, 
lengthen from the noun length ; other examples are 

whiten, blacken, sweeten, sharpen, heighten, frighten. 

And, on the other hand, derivatives are made by suffixes from 
verbs. Thus, from suck come the nouns sucker and suckling, 



99] DERIVATIVE WORDS. 41 

both meaning 'one who sucks'; from hinder comes hindrance, 
'anything that hinders'; and so on. And verbs in general 
form adjectives in ing and ed or en; we shall see hereafter (238) 
that they have the special name Of " participles " : thus, 

a sucking pig, a hindered result, a beaten dog. 

96. In all our examples thus far, the word derived by adding 
a suffix has been a different part of speech from the primitive, 
the simpler word to which the suffix was added ; and that is in 
general the way in our language. 

But it is not always so. Thus, we have nouns derived from 
nouns: as duckling, 'a little duck'; brooklet, 'a small brook'; 
countess, 'the wife of a count'; kingdom, 'the realm of a king'; 
knighthood, 'the rank of knight'; and so on. Again, we have 
adjectives derived from adjectives : as greenish from green — and 
greener and greenest, as we saw above (78), are really of the 
same kind. And there are a few cases of verbs derived from 
verbs (by a change in pronunciation, not an added suffix) : as 
fell, 'cause to fall'; set, 'cause to sit'; lay, 'cause to lie'; and so 
on (225 c). 

97. There are also nouns, as well as verbs, derived from 
verbs by changes of pronunciation, without any suffix : thus, 
bond and band from bind, song from sing, speech from speak, 
proof from prove, and so on. 

Those who study the history of our language are able to show that in most 
or all such cases there was formerly a suffix upon the derived word, but it is 
now lost. 

98. For the same reason, because of the loss of suffixes that once existed, 
there are not a few instances where words of which one is a derivative from 
the other, or else both alike are derivatives from a third which is no longer part 
of the language, are precisely alike. Thus, we have love the verb, and love the 
noun ; we have fight both as verb and as noun ; and many other like cases. 

99. But we also very frequently take a word which is prop- 
erly one part of speech and convert it into another, or use it with 
the value of another, without adding a suffix, or making any 



42 DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION. [99- 

other such change of form as regularly belongs to a derivative. 
Thus, many adjectives are used as nouns : for example, 

the good and the wicked, 
meaning good and wicked persons ; or 

the good, the beautiful, and the true, 
meaning that which is good, etc. Some adjectives do not add 
ly (94) to form adverbs, but are themselves used directly as 
adverbs : for example, 

much, little, fast, long, ill; 
others sometimes add ly and sometimes are used as adverbs with- 
out it : for example, 

full, wide, late, deep, mighty. 

Nouns are sometimes used as adjectives : we do not say a golden 
watch but a gold watch. And both nouns and adjectives are 
turned into verbs : thus, 

I head a rebellion; I foot a bill; 

I hand a paper; I finger a pie; 

I toe a mark; I eye a scene; 

I stomach an affront; I breast the waves; 

I black boots; the fruit matures; 

they bettered their condition; the work wearied him. 

This also is a kind of derivation. 

100. We also have derivative words made by putting some- 
thing before the primitive, instead of after it. . Thus, a host of 
words, of various kinds, may have un put before them, making 
a derivative which is the same part of speech, but of opposite 
meaning. For example, untrue and untruthful are adjectives, 
the opposite of true and truthful; and untruly and untruthfully 
are adverbs, the opposites of truly and truthfully. We can say 
also untruth, though there are far fewer nouns to which we add 
un in this way ; other examples are unbelief, unrest. And verbs 
derived with un, like undo and undress, are still less common. 

101. An addition thus made at the beginning of a word is 
called a peefix instead of a suffix {prefix means ' fixed or fastened 



104] COMPOUND WORDS. 43 

on in front '). Prefixes are in English much less common than 
suffixes ; and they do not ordinarily change the part of speech 
of the word to which they are added. Other examples are 

befall, gainsay, recall, dishonest, mischance. 

102. We saw above that the suffix ful, of truthful and other 
words like it, was really the adjective full added to the noun 
truth, in such a way that the two form but a single word. It 
would be proper, then, to say that truthful is a word made up of 
the two other independent words truth and full. Further ex- 
amples are 

rainbow, grass-plot, gentleman, washtub, 

high-born, homesick, browbeat, fulfil. 

Such a word is called a compound ; the two parts are said to 
be compounded, and the putting them together is called compo- 
sition (which means simply ' putting together '). 

103. There are great numbers of compound words in English, 
and we are all the time making new ones. 

Sometimes the compounded words stand in the compound 
just as they would in a sentence, and seem simply to have 
grown together into one : such are 

blackberry, broadaxe, gentleman, highland, grandfather. 

But much more often they have such a relation to one 
another that if we used them separately we should have to 
change their order, or put in other words to connect them, 
or both: thus, housetop is the 'top of a house,' headache is an 
' ache in the head,' heartrending is ' rending the heart/ blood-red 
is 'red like blood,' knee-deep is 'deep up to the knee,' washtub is 
a ' tub to wash inj drawbridge is a ' bridge made to draw up, 1 
steamboat is a ' boat that goes by steam,' and so on. 

Then there are cases in which the relation of the two words 
is still more peculiar : thus, a pickpocket is a ' person who picks 
pockets,' a telltale is ' one who tells tales ' ; and we call one a 
red -coat because he ' wears a red coat.' 

104. A compound is thus generally a shortened or abbreviated description 
of something. The compounded word, though really made up of two, comes to 



44 DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION. [104-107 

seem only one to us, and especially because we pronounce one of its parts more 
strongly and distinctly than the other — or, as it is called, lay an accent on 
one member of the compound. Compare, for example, highland with high land, 
gentleman with gentle man. 

105. A compounded word often changes its pronunciation still 
further, so that, without studying its history, we do not think 
of what it comes from. So with holiday, which is holy day; 
furlong, which is furrow-long ; fortnight, which is fourteen night; 
so with forehead and breakfast, and many others. 

106. Indeed, we can only make a beginning of understanding the deriva- 
tion and composition of English words, unless we study their history, in the 
older languages from which our English has 'come, and the other languages 
with which it is related (3). 

107. Thus far we have been looking at the words we use in 
order to be able to tell to what class each one belongs, or what 
" part of speech " it is-; to see what are the principal uses of each 
part of speech in the sentence ; how some parts of speech are 
inflected ; and how some words are derived from others, or put 
together to form others. Now we need to take up each part, of 
speech by itself, and examine it more fully with regard to some 
of these matters. 



EXERCISES TO CHAPTEE IV. 

FOR ANALYZING DERIVATIVE AND COMPOUND WORDS. 

It must be left to the judgment of the teacher, how far the pupils shall be 
expected or required to take apart and explain the derivative and compound 
words which occur in the exercises. If he chooses, this whole fourth chapter 
may be omitted at first, and also the paragraphs on simple, derivative, and 
compound words in the following chapters on the parts of speech; and the 
whole subject may be left until the Grammar is studied through a second time. 
But it is believed that nothing is brought forward here which is not so simple 
and elementary that even young scholars may take it up with advantage ; and 
that exercise from the beginning in such simple analysis as the chapter illus- 
trates will be a useful introduction to that study of the history of English 
words which is to be aimed at, but which only more advanced works can 
properly deal with. 

The enlightened teacher should supplement from his own knowledge the 
inquiries started here, adapting his further instruction to the capacities of his 



chap, iv.] EXERCISES. 45 

classes : especially, if they have studied Latin, by leading their attention to the 
Latin origin, and the derivation by Latin methods, of many of the words met 
with. 

VIII. Miscellaneous examples. 

The sky is darkened with thunder-clouds. The snow-drifts 
lie breast-high in the fence-corners. The industrious laborer 
wins wealth and , happiness. This proud countess was only a 
beggar-girl in her childhood ; she is the heroine of a wonderful 
and almost incredible story. The prisoner escaped from the keep- 
ing of his kind-hearted jailer; but the runaway was speedily 
recaptured, after a brief but wearisome chase. The rosy-faced 
school-boy runs to the play-ground with joyous swiftness. Your 
lordship is welcome. My grandfather sat in his easy-chair, and 
gazed at the beautiful landscape. The pickpocket was caught by 
the policeman, and, for security, placed in close confinement. His 
penknife lies beside the inkstand on his study-table. 

Great princes have great playthings. 

Blind unbelief is sure to err. 

Misery acquaints a man with strange bedfellows. 

Thou art glorious in holiness, fearful in praises. 

There's neither honesty, manhood, nor good fellowship in them. 

He drags at each remove a lengthening chain. 

Tis Jove's world- wandering herald. 

The snow shall be their winding-sheet. 

Borrowing dulls the edge of husbandry. 

So sinks the day-star in the ocean-bed. 

The breezy call of incense-breathing morn, 
The swallow twittering from the straw-built shed, 
No more shall rouse them from their lowly bed. 
Out of the cloud-folds of her garments shaken, 

Over the woodlands, brown and bare, 

Over the harvest-fields forsaken, 
Descends the snow. 

Athens arose — a city such as vision 

Builds from the purple crags and silver towers 
Of battlemented cloud, as in derision 

Of kingliest masonry ; the ocean-floors 
Pave it; the evening-sky pavilions it; 

Its portals are inhabited 

By thunder-zoned winds, each head 
Within its cloudy wings with sun-fire garlanded. 



46 NOUNS. [108- 



CHAPTER V. 
NOUNS. 

108. A noun is, as we have seen (32), the name of 
anything. 

We have noticed the principal uses of the noun in the sen- 
tence. Most important of all, it is the subject of the sentence : 

thus, 

the sun shines; horses run. 

It is also the object of a verb (71) : thus, 

I see the sun; he drives the horses. 

It is governed by a preposition (44) : thus, 

I look at the sun with my eyes, through a glass. 

It is qualified by an adjective : thus, 

I look at the bright sun, not with my naked eyes, but through 

a dark glass. 

There are other uses of the noun, which will be explained 
later ; but these are the ones by which we can best try a word, 
to see whether it is or is not to be called a noun. 

CLASSES OF NOUNS. 

109. A noun is sometimes the name of a separate or 
individual object : thus, 

a man, a horse, a tree, a house, 

a spoon, a cup, a gun, a brick. 

But a noun is also the name of a part of such an object : 

thus, 

hand, cheek, knee, foot, toe, nail; 

side, front, back, top, bottom, surface. 



112] KINDS OF NOUNS. 47 

Or a noun is the name of the material of which such an 
object is composed : thus, 

flesh, wood, silver, porcelain, iron, clay. 

110. Again, a noun is not only the name of an object 
that can be seen and touched, like those mentioned above, 
but of one that is perceived by other senses : thus, 

noise, thunder, odor, flavor. 

Also, of things which we conceive of as existing, though 
our senses do not show them to us directly : thus, 

mind, soul, God. 

111. Nouns are names also of a vast number of quali- 
ties and conditions and relations of objects : for example, 

place, color, height, weight, number, 

rectitude, frailty, truth, ugliness, beauty, 

nearness, distance, presence, absence, existence. 

These are called abstract nouns, because we abstract (that is, 
1 draw off, separate ') the qualities, and so forth, from the objects 
to which they belong, and think of them by themselves, as if 
they had a separate existence. 

112. Anything, in short, which we can put before our 
minds in such a way as to say something about it, or to 
make it by itself the subject of an assertion, we have to 
call by a name, and that name is a noun. 

Thus, if we see one boy strike another with a stick, we not 
only name the three separate things concerned, saying 

John struck James with a stick; 

but also the parts : thus, 

the hand that held the stick; 
the cheek which the stick struck. 

And we name the act itself, speaking of 

jt 
the stroke or blow which was struck by John. 



48 ; NOUNS. [112- 

Noticing that the blow was a quick and an angry one, and that 

it hurt, we can speak of these qualities and effects themselves : 

saying, for example, 

the quickness of the blow allowed no dodging; 

John's anger was evident; 

the pain of the blow was severe ; 

the mark of the blow remained a long time. 

And we moralize about it thus : 

striking one's companion deserves punishment; 

such an occurrence is painful enough; 

the sight was disagreeable to me; 

and so on. 

It is needless to attempt to classify the whole infinite variety of nouns, but a 
few classes of especial importance have to be noticed. 

113. A noun is generally the name of each member of a 
whole class of similar things ; it belongs to a number of 
different individuals, and to one of them just as much as to 
another : for example, 

man, dog, city, country, day, month, star. 

But in some classes the different individuals are of im- 
portance enough to have names as individuals, distinguish- 
ing them from others of the same class. 

Thus, each country, each city or town of a country, each street 
of a city, has its own name, by which it may be known from 
other countries, towns, or streets : for example, 

England, Germany, America, China ; 

London, Paris, Berlin, New York, Peking ; 

Ludgate, Cornhill, the Boulevards, Broadway. 

So each day of the week and month of the year : as, 

Wednesday, Saturday; March, December. 
So each planet or star : as, 

Venus, Jupiter, Antares, the Pleiades. 
So, to its acquaintances, each dog : as, 

Tray, Spot, Nix, Rover, Caesar. 



115] CLASSES OF NOUNS. 49 

So, especially, each man : thus, 

Moses, Paul, Socrates, Julius Caesar, 
Martin Luther, Pius IX., Mohammed, 
William Pitt, George Washington. 

Such a name is called a " proper " noun or name (that is, 
in the Latin meaning of the word proper, 'belonging to 
something in particular, appropriated to individual use '). 

A proper noun or name, then, is a name given to an in- 
dividual of a class, to distinguish it from other individuals 
of the same class. 

And, in contrast to these, all the rest are called common 
nouns — that is, names owned in common by a number of 
things of the same kind, their class-name. 

114. On the other hand, some nouns signify, not any 

single thing, but a certain number or collection of single 

things : * thus, 

pair, dozen, group, troop, team, 
gang, family, tribe, nation. 

Such nouns are called collectives. 

115. Some nouns mark the thing signified by them as 

male or female : thus, 

man, woman; son, daughter; 

uncle, aunt; king, queen; 

bull, cow; ram, ewe; 

count, countess; hero, heroine. 

Such nouns are called GENDER-nouns (from a Latin word 
meaning c kind, sex '). 

And those gender-nouns that signify male beings are 
called masculine nouns, or nouns of the masculine gender ; 
while those that signify female beings are called feminine 
nouns, or nouns of the feminine gender. 

All other nouns — those which are not gender-nouns, or 
have nothing to do with defining sex — are often called 
neuter nouns, or nouns of the neuter gender (that is, ' of 



50 NOUNS. [115 - 

neither one sex nor the other'). They either belong to 
objects that have no sex, like 

sun, day, house, tree, stone, hair, color; 

or they are given indifferently to beings of both sexes : as, 

child, horse, hound, fish, crab, mosquito. 

There is no need to say anything about gender in connection with a noun, 
unless it be a noun that actually implies a distinction of sex. 

116. Some nouns mark the thing they signify as of 
small size ; or, if a creature, as young, not full-grown. 
Examples are 

gosling, lambkin, brooklet, hillock, bootee. 

These are called diminutives (words showing something 
diminished, or made small). 

Words like boy, babe, colt, lamb, pup, have a meaning like that of diminutives; 
but it is usual to give this name only to words derived from others by suffixes 
which add the diminutive meaning. 

These are the most important classifications of norms according 
to their meaning. Now we have to notice their principal classi- 
fications according to their form. 

117. Nouns are divided according to their form into 
simple, derivative, arid compound. 

Simple nouns are such as we cannot take apart into 
simpler elements : as, 

sun, man, boy, hope, chair, family. 
Derivative nouns are such as come by added suffixes 
or prefixes from other simpler words used in our lan- 
guage : as, 

manliness from man (through manly) ; 
boyhood from boy ; goodness from good ; 
truth from true ; countess from count. 

Compound nouns are such as are made up of two or more 
words used independently in our language : as, 

house-top, inkstand, steamboat, blackberry, pickpocket. 



119] DERIVATIVE NOUNS. 51 

It has been already pointed out (106) that a great many words which are 
thus denned as simple are found to be really derivative or compound when we 
come to know more about them. To recognize the plain and evident derivation 
and composition of English words is the proper preparation for studying the 
history of the obscurer ones. 

118. The most frequent and important classes of derivative 
nouns are as follows : 

a. Abstract nouns, from adjectives : as, 

goodness, likeness; frailty, security; truth, breadth. 
Or from nouns : as, 

Godhead ; boyhood, knighthood ; kingdom ; despotism. 

b. Feminine gender-noxnis, from masculines : as, 
countess (from count), abbess (from abbot), heroine (from hero). 

C. Diminutives, from other nouns : as, 

gosling (from goose); brooklet, ringlet; lambkin. 

d. Nouns denoting an actor, from verbs : as, 

lover, runner, defender, beggar, sailor, grantor. 

e. Nouns denoting one who deals with or practises any- 
thing, from other nouns : as, 

jailer, prisoner; lawyer, glazier; annalist, organist. 

f. Nouns denoting an action or condition, from verbs : as, 

feeling, meaning. 

g. Nouns formed from other nouns by prefixes : as, 

unbelief, unconcern, inexperience, nonsense; disease, disgrace; 
ex-mayor, ante-room, sub-officer. 

119. The principal classes of compound nouns are as follows : 

a. A noun with a preceding adjective that qualifies or de- 
scribes it : as, 

ill-will, midday, blindworm, blackberry, goodman, Englishman. 

b. A noun with a preceding noun that describes it, or is in 
apposition (375) with it : as, 

merchant-tailor, sailor-boy, man-servant. 



52 NOUNS. [119 - 

C. A noun with a preceding noun that limits it in any other 
way : as, 
sunrise, seashore, innkeeper, churchyard, rainbow, nest-egg, 
shellfish, steamboat, railway. 

This class is by far the largest, and the relation of the limiting noun to the 
other is a very various one (see 103). 

d. A noun with a preceding verb-root taken in the sense of a 
verbal noun : as, 

washtub, treadmill, drawbridge, bakehouse: 

that is, ' tub for washing/ and so on. 

e. A descriptive compound, made either of a noun and pre- 
ceding adjective (class a) with the idea of possession added : as, 

red-coat, blue-stocking, graybeard : 

that is, f one who has or wears a red coat/ and so on ; or of a 
verb with its object or an adverbial expression following it : as, 

pickpocket, turnkey, lie-abed, runaway, touch-me-not: 

that is, ' one who picks pockets/ and so on. 

f. A noun with a prefix : as, 

inland, afterthought, overthrow, underbrush, forelock, outpost. 

It is not easy to draw the line sharply between those words formed with pre- 
fixes which are to be regarded as compounds and those which are to be regarded 
as derivatives (118 g). 

INFLECTION OF NOUNS. 

120. Nouns are inflected, or varied in form, to express 
differences of number and of case. 

The inflection of a noun is called its declension. (See 
above, 58, 68, 74, 75.) 

NUMBER. 

121. The numbers are two : the singular, used -when 
only one thing of the kind denoted by the noun is meant ; 
and the plural, when more than one are meant. (See 
above, 68.) 



124] NUMBER. 53 

122. English nouns regularly form their plural by add- 
ing s or es to the singular : thus, 

hats, hoes, kisses. 

123. But, as the examples just given show, the added s 
sometimes is pronounced as an s (hats), and sometimes as a z 
(hoes) ; #nd sometimes it makes an additional syllable (kisses). 

The rules for this are as follows : 

a. If a noun ends with the sound (however spelt) of p, or t, or k, or f, or ih 
pronounced as in thin and truth, the added s has the proper s-sound as in sauce, 
and does not make an additional syllable : thus, 

caps, capes, mats, mates, tacks, cakes, chiefs, safes, seraphs, coughs, truths. 

b. If a noun ends with the sound (however spelt) of any vowel, or of m, n, 
ng, I, or r, or of b, d, g as in go and egg, v, or th as in the and lathe, the added s 
makes no additional syllable, but has the sound of z : thus, 

days, fees, eyes, hoes, pews, brows, boys, hymns, chimes, sins, signs, 
songs, wails, cars, cares, tubs, tubes, lads, spades, eggs, eaves, lathes. 

C. If a noun ends in a hissing or sibilant sound — namely, the sound of s, z, 
sh, and zh, however spelt (hence including the x, ch, and j-sounds) — the added 
sign of the plural makes another syllable, es, and is written es unless the noun 
ends already with a silent e; and the s (as always after a vowel sound) is pro- 
nounced as z. Thus, 

kisses, horses, ices, boxes, buzzes, prizes, fishes, matches, judges. 

124. Some nouns are more or less irregular in the way in 
which the addition of the plural sign is made. Thus : 

a. A class of nouns ending in an f-sound (spelt f or fe) form 
their plural in ves: thus, 

half, halves; leaf, leaves; wife, wives; shelf, shelves; 

also 

staff, staves. 
But 

puffs, cliffs, fifes, hoofs, 

and some others. 

b. Many nouns ending in the singular with th having the 
thin-sound, change it to the then-sound in the plural, and then, 
of course, give the added s the z-sound : thus, 

path, paths; oath, oaths; 

and so on. 



54 NOUNS. [124- 

C. Die, pea, and penny form the plurals 

dice, pease, pence, 

besides the regular 

dies, peas, pennies; 

the different forms being used in somewhat different senses. 

d. Nouns ending in y after a consonant, and many of those ending in o after 
a consonant, add es instead of s, changing the y to i : thus, 

pony, ponies; lady, ladies; colloquy, colloquies; cargo, cargoes ; potato, potatoes ; 

but 

boys, days, valleys, attorneys; 
and also 

bravos, zeros. 

e. Letters and figures, and a word of any part of speech 
used as a noun in the sense of 'the word so and so' (148), 
usually put an apostrophe ( ' ) before the s that forms their plu- 
ral : thus, 

dot your i's and cross your fs; 

in 999 are three 9's; 

he uses too many I's and me's and my's. 

125. A few English nouns form their plurals in other 
ways. Thus : 

a. By a change of sound within, not adding any ending : 

thus, 

man, men; woman, women; 

foot, feet tooth, teeth; goose, geese; 

louse, lice; mouse, mice; 

these last two have also a change in the spelling, from s to c. 

b. By adding en, with or without other changes : -thus, 
ox, oxen; brother, brethren (or brothers); child, children. 

And cow in old style forms kine. 

126. A considerable number of words taken unchanged 
from foreign languages form their plurals according to the 
rules of those languages. 



128] NUMBER. 55 

Some of the commonest of these are 

phenomenon, phenomena; stratum, strata; 

genus, genera; formula, formulae; 

genius, genii; analysis, analyses; 

index, indices; beau, beaux; 
cherub, cherubim. 

But many of these words, being of frequent use, make regular 
English plurals as well as foreign ones : thus, 

formulas, cherubs, indexes, geniuses. 

Sometimes (as in the last two cases) the two kinds of plural are 
used in different senses. 

127. Some words use, either generally or in certain 
senses, their singular form also with a plural meaning, 
instead of forming a proper pluraL 

Thus: 

a. Certain names of animals, as 

sheep, deer, swine, fish (also fishes), 
and sundry kinds of fish, as 

trout, salmon, shad, pike. 

b. Certain words, mostly collectives (114), used with numer- 
als in counting objects or telling their number : thus, 

couple, brace, pair, yoke, dozen, score, gross, ton, head, sail. 

C. A few other words : as 

cannon, shot, heathen, folk, people. 

' There are few of these words which do not sometimes, in 
some uses, form a plural like other nouns. 

128. Some words are rarely or never used except in the 
singular. These are especially proper names (113); nouns 
of material (109) : as, 

gold, lead, clay, mortar, flesh; 
and abstract nouns (111) : as, 

peace, caloric, thankfulness. 



56 NOUNS. [128- 

But even proper names are capable of forming plurals signifying either the 
more* than one individual bearing the same name : as, 

the Smiths and the Browns; all the Wednesdays of the month; 

or individuals resembling the one to whom the name belongs : as, 
the Miltons and Shakespeares of our century. 

Most nouns of material are also used as names of articles made of that ma- 
terial, or kinds of it, or masses of it, and so on, and as such have plurals : as, 
a ship's coppers; the leads of a roof; the clays and gravels of the West. 
And a great many abstract nouns form plurals as signifying the quality iu 
separate acts or exhibitions : thus, 

a good man's charities; the heats of summer; 

the loves of the angels ; the beauties of its form. 

129. Some words, on the other hand, are used only in 

the plural. Examples are 

bellows, tongs, shears, trousers, measles, victuals, vitals, entrails, 
annals, nuptials, obsequies, thanks. 

News and means, properly plural, have now come to be used generally as 
singular. So also names of branches of study ending in ics, as ethics, mathe- 
matics, politics. 

Riches, originally a singular, has now come to be used only as a plural. 

. 130. Compound nouns add the sign of the plural to the 
noun, or to the principal noun, the one described or limited by 
the other : thus, 

blackbirds, merchantmen, house-tops, steamboats, hangers-on, 
brothers-in-law, drawbridges, afterthoughts. 

A descriptive compound (119 e) adds s to the last word, whether 
noun or not : as, 

redcoats, turnkeys, runaways, forget-me-nots. 

Some words, originally compounds, are no longer felt as such, 
and so are treated as simple words : thus, 

mouthfuls, handfuls. 

^ CASE. 

131. English nouns have only two case-forms : one of 
them, the possessive or genitive, shows possession or ap- 
purtenance; the other is used in all other relations. 



136] CASE. 57 

132. Since, however, some pronouns have one case-form 

— I, he, they, who, etc. — for use when the word is sub- 
ject, and another — me, him, them, whom, etc. — for use 
when the word is object of a verb or preposition, it is 
customary to distinguish these two different uses of the 
noun also, and to speak of the subjective or nominative 
case, and of the objective or accusative case of the noun ; 
although in fact the two are always the same in form (com- 
pare 74). 

133. The possessive case in the singular number is made 
by adding an s (before which an apostrophe is written : 
thus, 's) to the noun. 

This sign of the possessive follows the same rules as the s of the plural (123) 
with regard to being pronounced as s or as z, and to forming an additional syl- 
lable or not ; but it is never written with es. 

Thus, in cat's it is pronounced as s, in dog's as z ; in sex's and Charles's and 
church's it makes a syllable and has the x-sound. 

134. But a noun of more than one syllable ending in an s or z-sound some- 
times (like a plural ; see below) omits the possessive sign, in order to avoid the 
disagreeable repetition of hissing letters. In such a case, an apostrophe is 
written alone at the end of the word. Thus, 

ihe princess' favorite; for conscience' sake. 

135. Plurals not ending in s make their possessive case 
in the same way as singulars : thus, 

men's, children's, mice's, sheep's. 
Other plurals make no change in pronunciation for their 
possessive cases ; but an apostrophe is written after the s 

— thus, s' — as sign to the eye of the possessive use : thus, 

cats', dogs', ladies', horses', judges'. 

136. For the possessive case in almost all its uses we can put 
the objective with of : thus, 

the cat's head, or the head of the cat; 
the king's enemies, or the enemies of the king. 

And many nouns are rarely or never used in the possessive, the 
other mode of expression being employed instead. 



58 NOUNS. [137- 

137. In compound nouns, the sign of the possessive is added 
at the end of the whole compound, of whatever kind it may be : 
thus, his father-in-law's house. 

138. The same rule is followed in the case of a combination 
of two names, of a name preceded by a title, of a noun preceded 
or followed by descriptive or limiting words, and so on : thus, 

George Washington's hatchet; Queen Elizabeth's ruff; 

Mr. John Smith's horse; Thomas Robinson Esquire's residence; 

the King of England's crown ; his dead master Edward's memory ; 

at my cousin William Thompson's. 

Even when nouns are connected by and or or, the possessive 
sign is sometimes added only to the last of them : thus, 

God and Nature's hand ; 

a fortnight or three weeks' possession. 

139. There are certain uses of the noun (or pronoun) which 
represent another case, one which was formerly distinguished in 
English by a difference of form from the nominative, possessive, 
and objective, and which is still so distinguished in many lan- 
guages — the so-called dative case. It expresses the relation 
usually signified by to or for, as the possessive expresses that 
signified by of. 

Thus, instead of saying, 

I sent a book to my friend, 

we may say, 

" , I sent my friend a book; 

instead of 

he made a coat for the man, 

we may say 

he made the man a coat. 
Friend and man, in the latter phrases, have really just as 
good a right to be called " datives " as friend and man after to 
and for in the former phrases have to be called " objectives." 

140. But as there are no words in English, even pronouns, 
which have for such dative uses a special form, different from 
the objective, we call a word so used a dative-objective, or ob- 



143] CASE. 59 

jective of the indieect object ; and distinguish the other, when 
necessary, as the accusative-objective, or objective of the di- 
rect object. (See Syntax, 363 etc) 

141. Nouns have no distinction of person (61) : that is 
to say, a noun used as subject takes the verb always in 
the same person, the third, even though used by the 
speaker about himself, or in addressing another: thus, 

the subscriber gives notice; is your honor well? 

But we often call to a person or thing, addressing it by its 
name : as, 

God! ye stars! see here, my friend; 

what do you mean, you blockhead? ^w*Iaa/m/vv. 
Some languages have for this use a special form, which is 
called the " vocative " case ; we use the subjective or nominative 
case ; and we may distinguish it, when thus used, as the nomi- 
native of address, or the vocative-nominative — or simply 

VOCATIVE. 

A vocative is never a member of a sentence ; it forms no part of either sub- 
ject or predicate, but stands by itself, like an interjection. But it may have 
the same words, or phrases, or even clauses, added to it that the other cases 
have, by way of limitation or description. Thus, for example : 

Your Grace of York, set forward ! 
O great Sciolto ! O my more than father ! 
Our Father which art in heaven. 

EXAMPLES OF DECLENSION. 

142. Examples of the complete inflection, or declension, 
of an English noun, are, then, as follows : 

Sing. PL Sing. PI. Sing. PL 

NG1 Ob^ti e ve and {cat cats dress dresses man men 

Genitive or Pos- 



sessive 



{cat's cats' dress's dresses' man's men's 



OTHER PARTS OF SPEECH USED AS NOUNS. 

143. Words that are not properly nouns, also combina- 
tions of words, even phrases and sentences (clauses), are 



60 NOUNS. [143- 

sometimes used in sentences with the value of nouns. 
They are then usually said to be used substantively, or as 
substantives (35). 

144. Adjectives are especially often used substantively. 

Thus: 

a. Some adjectives are used with the value of an abstract 
noun in the singular, meaning 'that which is so and so,' or the 
like : thus, 

avoid the wrong and choose the right; 
the good, the beautiful, and the true. 
So also, 

sit on my left; a breeze from the north; 

we judge the future by the past; 

he was in the thickest of the fight; 

and so on. 

b. Almost any adjective may be used as a plural noun, signi- 
fying the persons in general that have the character described by 
the adjective : thus, 

give to the poor; the virtuous alone are happy; 
how sleep the brave! the dead are more than the living; 
sweets to the sweet. 

C. Many adjectives are used as nouns, either in the singular 
or in the plural, to signify a person or thing such as would be 
described by the adjective. 

So, especially, an adjective that means belonging to a certain 
country, or race, or sect, or party : thus, 

an American, the Americans, a Greek, a Lutheran, 
a Stoic, the Asiatics, Medes and Persians. 

An adjective of country or race also signifies the language of 
that country or race : thus, 

the English is our mother-tongue; 
say it in French; he reads Chinese. 



143] WORDS USED AS NOUNS. 61 

Other examples are : 

a noble, the nobles, a brave (' Indian warrior '), 
the ancients, blacks and whites, goods and chattels, his betters, 

an elder. 

But most adjectives of nation ending in a sibilant sound (s or z or sh) are used 
as nouns signifying persons in the plural only, and form compounds with man 
in the singular : thus, 

an Englishman, the English ; a Dutchman, the Dutch. 

Unlike the first two classes, these often form plurals (excepting the little sub- 
class last mentioned) like nouns ; and it may be a question whether we should' 
not consider them as adjectives converted into derivative nouns, rather than as 
adjectives used substantively. 

145. Adverbs are sometimes used after prepositions with the 
value of nouns : thus, 

since then, from hence, from abroad. 
(See 322.) 

146. The infinitive of a verb is really a verbal noun, and all 
its constructions are to be explained as such. (See Chapter 
XV.) 

147. A sentence, containing a subject and predicate of its 
own, is often used with the value of a noun in another sentence : 
thus, 

what he does is well done; they saw that he was ill. 
(See 423.) 

148. A word of any kind may be used as a noun, when we 
mean by it ' the word so and so, with the meaning that belongs 
to it • : thus, 

loved is a* verb; truly is a derivative adverb; 
he promised without an if or a but; 
when I was young — ah! woful when ! 

Names of letters and figures and so on are like these. 

Sometimes a phrase or clause composed of more than one word is used in 
the same way : thus, 

ihe saddesi of words are "it might have been"; 
a bitter and perplexed "What shall I do?" 



62 NOUNS. [chap. 

EXERCISES TO CHAPTER V. 

PARSING. 

We are now ready to begin to parse, as it is called, a part of the 
words — namely, the nouns — in our illustrative sentences and exer- 
cises. 

To parse a word is to give a complete account of it, as it stands in 
the sentence of which it forms a part. 

This account (or description, or definition) includes three parts : — 

A. What kind of word it is. This implies telling : 

1. What part of speech it is ; 

2. To which of the various classes and sub-classes into which 
that part of speech is divided it belongs. 

The distinctions of the parts of speech, with the reasons for them, are given 
in the second chapter ; the classes etc. are given under each part of speech. 

B. What is its grammatical form. This implies telling : 

1. Whether it is simple, or derivative, or compound ; 

2. If it is an inflected word, what is its form as such : that is, of 
what number, case, person, tense, mode, or degree it is. And, in 
connection with this, the word should be more or less fully in- 
flected, to show what its various inflectional forms are. 

As was pointed out at the end of the fourth chapter (p. 44), the first of these 
heads — the question of derivative, compound, etc. — may be omitted or de- 
ferred at the teacher's discretion. 

C. What is its construction : that is, what part it plays in the 
sentence to which it belongs, in what way it is combined with other 
words to make up the sentence. 

Construction means ' building together' ; the sentence is thought of as a 
structure or 'building,' as something built up by joining in a proper manner 
its various parts, the parts of speech that compose it. 

The various constructions of any part of speech are the various 
ways in which it admits of being combined or put together with other 
parts of speech in making sentences. We have explained in the second 
and third chapters all the most usual constructions of the different 
parts of speech ; and the rest will be pointed out later, in the Syntax. 
The constructions of the noun noticed were these : a. subject of verb ; 



v.] EXERCISES. 63 

b. object of verb ; c. object of preposition yd. predicate noun ; e. pos- 
sessive qualifying another noun. Any others than these are compara- 
tively rare. 

There are various styles of parsing : a fuller style, when every detail is given 
about the word parsed, with the reason for everything ; and a briefer, in which 
only the matters of most importance are mentioned, and the reasons omitted. 
The teacher must determine at any time which style shall be expected. He 
will naturally begin with the fuller, and pass gradually to the briefer when the 
other becomes a mere burdensome repetition of things well understood and 
familiar. 

Example of parsing nouns. 

My brother laid the paintings on John's writing-desk. 

The first thing to be done here, as always, is to divide the sen- 
tence into subject and predicate — by a line drawn down between 
the two, if written ; and then to point out the bare subject and the 
bare predicate — by underscoring them, if written : thus, 

My brother I laid the paintings on John's writing-desk. 

Then, on either side the line, the word underscored is to be the 
first one taken up and parsed, since the rest are mere adjuncts or 
qualifiers to that one. And, in general, a word qualified by any 
other is to be parsed before that other. This is a rule of highest 
importance. 

We begin, then, with brother : 

Brother is a noun, because it is the name of something (namely, 
the name of a living being) ; a common noun, because it belongs 
alike to every individual of a class ; a gender-noun, because it im- 
plies a distinction of sex ; masculine, because it denotes only a male 
being (the corresponding feminine being sister) ; — it is a simple 
noun, because it cannot be taken apart into simpler English ele- 
ments ; singular, because it means only one of its class ; it is in- 
flected thus : brother, brother's, brothers, brothers' ; it is in the 
nominative case, because it is the subject of the sentence, the subject- 
nominative of the verb laid. 

Of my, we only need to say here that it is an adjective qualify- 
ing brother, showing whose brother is meant. 

Of laid, again, we say only that it is a verb, the bare predicate of 
the sentence, having for its subject the noun brother. 



64 NOUNS. [chap. 

The noun paintings, again, we parse completely, but in a briefer 
form : 

Paintings is a noun, a common noun, a derivative from the verb 
paint (as signifying something painted) ; it is of the plural number 
(because it denotes more than one of the things denoted by painting), 
and in the objective case, the object of the verb laid, being added 
to the verb to show what was laid. 

The is an adjective word called an article (52), qualifying 
paintings. 

Writing-desk is a common noun ; it is compound, being made 
up of writing and desk (meaning, 'a desk for writing on ? ) : it is 
in the objective case singular, object of the preposition on, being 
joined by the preposition to the verb laid, in order to show where 
the books were laid. 

John's is a simple proper noun (because used to distinguish a 
certain individual from others of his class), masculine, in the geni- 
tive case singular ; and it qualifies writing-desk, being added to it 
to show whose writing-desk is meant. 

Of on, finally, we need only say that it is a preposition, joining 
its object writing-desk to the verb laid. 

EXERCISES FOR PRACTICE IN PARSING NOUNS. 

For practice in parsing, classes may be made to turn back to the exercises 
already given under the preceding chapters ; or they may be directed to the 
various illustrative sentences in the text ; or to sentences made by the teacher 
or pupils and written out upon the board ; or to sentences selected by the 
teacher and written in the same way ; or to passages in the Readers or other 
text-books which the class is using — anything to make variety in the exercise, 
and rid it of a mechanical character. 

A few additional examples are here given ; mostly such as illustrate special 
and exceptional points. 

IX. Miscellaneous examples. 

The chambers of sickness and distress are mostly peopled with 
the victims of intemperance and sloth. 
I have bought five yoke of oxen. 
These people, however fallen, are still men. 
More than a hundred children's children rode on his knee. 
Cool shades and dews are round my way. 
In this place ran Cassius' dagger through. 



v.] EXERCISES. 65 

Something more than fortune joined your loves. 

His brother pirate's hand he wrung. 

The vile alone are vain ; the great are proud. 

Thy songs were made for the pure and free. 

O night and darkness ! ye are wondrous strong. 

He strode haughtily into the thickest of the group. 

From gold to gray, our wild sweet day 

Of Indian summer fades too soon. 

A hundred of the foe shall be 

A banquet for the mountain birds. 

So sweet a kiss the golden sun gives not 

To those fresh morning drops upon the rose. 

He giveth his beloved sleep. 

Jove but laughs at lovers' perjury. 

They bring down my gray hairs with sorrow to the grave. 

Heaven from all creatures hides the book of Fate. 

They shook the depths of the desert gloom 
With their hymns of lofty cheer. 



66 PRONOUNS. [149 



CHAPTER VI. 
PRONOUNS. 

149. A pronoun, as we have seen (33), is a kind of sub- 
stitute for a noun. 

A pronoun does not precisely name anything; but it 
points to or points out some person or thing that has been 
named before, or that is shown by a gesture, or that is 
defined by its relation to something else that is named. 
r ; Thus, if I say 

this is my father; did you wish to see him? 

I use my instead of my own name, and you instead of that of 
the person to whom I speak ; having mentioned my father, I do 
not repeat the name, but use him instead ; and this describes 
plainly enough the person whom I take hold of, or toward whom 
I make some gesture, or who is the only one near me. 

150. The pronouns have then, in general, the same uses 
that nouns have in making sentences. 

But pronouns differ from nouns in this respect — that they are 
almost never qualified by attributive adjectives : that is, by ad- 
jectives placed before them and directly qualifying them (374). 
Thus, for example, we say 

a man, but not a he; 

these men, but not these we; 

good men, but not good they; 

and so on. 

Some of the words used as pronouns are used also as adjec- 
tives, qualifying a noun that is expressed, instead of standing for 
one that is omitted : thus, either 

this is my father, or this man is my father. 



154] CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 67 

This distinction between the substantive and the adjective value of the same 
word, or between its use as pronoun and as pronominal adjective, should 
always be clearly and accurately made. 

151. Pronouns have also the same inflection as nouns : 
namely, for number and case. And some of them, as has 
been pointed out above, have for the objective case a spe- 
cial form, different from the nominative. 

One class of pronouns, the personal, make a distinction 
of person (61) ; and one of these makes also, in the singu- 
lar number, a distinction of gender (115). 

152. The pronouns are divided into four classes : 

1. personal pronouns; 

2. demonstrative pronouns; 

3. interrogative pronouns; 

4. relative or conjunctive pronouns. 

And there is besides another class, to which the name of 
pronoun less properly belongs, and which are called 

5. indefinite pronouns. 

There are so few pronouns of each class that we mention and 
describe them all — as is not the case with any other part of 
speech. 

1. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

153. The personal pronouns are so called because they 
especially mark differences of person (61) : that is, they 
distinguish the person speaking, or the first person, from 
the person spoken to, or the second # person, and the person 
spoken of, or the third person. 

154. The inflection of these pronouns is very irregular : thus, 
the plurals are quite different words from the singulars ; and the 
possessives usually have double forms, and are not made like 
those of nouns ; and both possessive and objective are sometimes 
quite different words from the nominative. 



68 PRONOUNS. [155- 

155. The pronouns of the first and second persons, with 
all their forms, are these : 

First Person. Second Person. 

Sing. PL Sing. PL 

Nom. | we thou ye, you 

Poss. my, mine our, ours thy, thine your, yours 

obj. me us thee you 

156. The plural forms of the first personal pronoun signify 
the speaker himself, together with the person or persons spoken 
to, or with others — any set or group or company of whom the 
speaker is one : thus, 

we [human beings] have speech, and they [other animals]" 

have not; 
we [Americans] live in the western hemisphere; 

we [I with my companions] took a long walk together; 

we [you and I] see each other. 

So the plural of the second person signifies either a number 
of persons addressed, or one or more such along with others who 
are regarded as belonging in one company with them : thus, 

you [whom I speak to] must listen to me; 
you [Germans] are a nation of scholars. 

157. In certain styles, we, our, ours, us are used by a single speaker of him- 
self. So, especially by a sovereign : as, 

We, Victoria, Queen of England ; 

also by a writer, an editor or contributor to a periodical, who speaks as if he 
represented the whole body of people concerned in editing or contributing to 
the publication for which he writes. 

158. The pronoun of the second person singular, thou 
etc., is no longer used by us (as it was used in. former 
times) when ordinarily speaking to one another ; but it 
is left for certain higher and more solemn or more im- 
passioned uses, especially in prayer and in poetry. Thus, 

O thou to whom all creatures bow, 
How mighty is thy name! 



160] PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 69 

And thou too, whosoe'er thou art, 
That readest this brief psalm. 

The plural nominative form ye (formerly the only nomina- 
tive case) we use in much the same way : thus, 

night and darkness, ye are wondrous strong! 
ye hard hearts, ye cruel men of Rome! 

And you, formerly objective only, has become the common 
pronoun of address, both nominative and objective, and 
whether we speak to one person or to more than one. Be- 
ing properly a plural pronoun, you takes, when subject, the 
verb in the plural, even though only one person is ad- 
dressed: thus, 

you are and you were; never you is and you was. 

Thou and ye (or you) are often, like nouns (141), used in the 
vocative, in calling to persons or things addressed ; as in the 
examples given above. 

159. The personal pronoun of the third person, the sub- 
stitute for the name of anything spoken of, distinguishes 
not only number and case, but, in the singular, gender also. 

That is to say, we use one pronoun when the object re- 
ferred to is male, another when it is female, and another 
when it is of no sex, or w T hen we make no account of its 
sex. The first form is called the masculine, because it 
stands for a masculine gender-noun (115) ; the second femi- 
nine, because it stands for a feminine gender-noun ; the 
third neuter, because it stands for any noun that is ' nei- 
ther ' masculine nor feminine. 

160. The complete declension, then, of this pronoun is 
as follows : 

Singular. Plural. 

Masc. Fern. Neut. 

Nom. he she it they 

Poss. his her, hers its their, theirs 

I Obj. him her it them 



70 PRONOUNS. [161- 

161. By the use of the first two forms of this pronoun in the 
singular, we make a distinction of sex : 

1. In those creatures that have evident sex, or in which the 
difference of sex is an important matter, and especially in human 
beings, men and women ; and 

2. Sometimes in personified objects — that is, in those which, 
though we know they are not persons, we yet talk about as if 
they were so, as if they possessed sex. Thus, we speak of the 
sun as he, and of the moon or the earth or a ship as she. 

162. On the other hand, even objects that have sex, as the 
lower animals, are usually or often denoted by it, their sex not 
being of account enough to be noticed. Or, in some cases, we 
use he and she of them — as he of the dog, and she of the 
cat — without any particular reference to their sex, but because 
their qualities in general appear to us in that way. And It is 
regularly used as corresponding pronoun to child, baby and 
other such words, because they are not gender-nouns, but imply 
an overlooking of the sex of the beings signified by them. 

163. It has a variety of special uses ; some of the more im- 
portant of them are the following : 

a. It very often stands as subject of a verb instead of a phrase 
or clause which is the real subject, and which is then put after 
the verb : thus, 

it is not difficult to die; it is doubtful whether he will come; 
it is to you that I speak; 

that is, 

to die is not difficult; whether he will come is doubtful; 

that I speak (that is, my speaking) is to you. 

In such sentences, it is called the grammatical subject ; and the word or 
phrase is called the logical subject : that is, 'the subject according to the 
real meaning or logic of the sentence.' 

b. It stands as impersonal subject of a verb : that is to 
say, not signifying any real subject, but helping the verb to 



166] PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 71 

express an action or condition without reference to any actor : 

thus, 

it rains; it was cold; it grew dark fast; 

it will soon strike ten; is it far to London? 

it came to blows between them. 

Sometimes also as impersonal object : thus, 

they footed it through the streets ; he lorded it over them. 

164. The words self (sing.) and selves (plur.) are added to 
my, our, thy, your, him, her, it, and them, forming a class of 
compound personal pronouns, which have two principal uses : 

a. To mark emphasis, either alone or (more usually) along 
with the simple pronoun : thus, 

I myself or me myself; none but herself. 

And these compounds have so assumed the character of emphatic personal 
pronouns that myself and thyself are occasionally found, without any preceding 
I and thou, as subjects of the verb in the first and second person : thus, 

myself am Naples; thyself art God. 

b. As the reflexive object of a verb : that is, an object de- 
noting the same person or thing with the subject (see 306) : 

thus, 

I dress myself; they saw themselves deceived ; 

you will hurt yourself, or yourselves. 

Ourself and yourself denote a single person ; ourselves and yourselves, more 
than one. 
But the simple pronoun is also sometimes used reflexively : thus, 

he laid him down. 

165. The possessive cases of these pronouns may also be 
regarded as possessive adjectives, and will be treated of as such 
below (205). 

2. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 

166. The only demonstrative pronouns in English are 

this and that, 
in the singular number, and 

these and those, 

the corresponding plurals. 



72 PRONOUNS. [166- 

All these words are used both as nominative and as 
objective cases, and they have no possessive. 

Demonstrative means ' pointing out, showing, directing atten- 
tion to ' anything. 

167. This and these are used to mean something nearer ; 
that and those, something further off. 

That and those are also much used, instead of it and they, as 
antecedents (175) of a relative pronoun : thus, we say 

he whom you saw; 

but 

that (not it) which you saw. 

They are used, too, in place of a noun which would have to be 
repeated along with a phrase describing it : thus, 

my horse and that (not it) of my neighbor; 
home-made articles and those (not they) from abroad. 

168. These words, along with yon and yonder, have the value 
also of " demonstrative adjectives," qualifying a following noun : 
see below, 208. 

Respecting here and ihere, used in composition with prepositions in the sense 
of ' this ' and ' that ' or ' it ' — as in 

herewith, iherein, thereof, etc. — 
see below, 314. 

3. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

169. The interrogative (that is, 'inquiring, question- 
asking ') pronouns are 

who, what, which, and whether. 

Their office is to ask a question, or to make an inter- 
rogative sentence (54) ; and their usual place is as near as 
possible to the beginning of the sentence : thus, 

who comes here? what does he wanb? 
with whose permission did he leave home? 
which of us does he seek? 



173] INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 73 

170. Who is used, without any change of form, both as 
singular and as plural : thus, either 

who was here? or who were here? 

It has, however, like the personal pronouns, three case- 
forms : 

nominative, who; possessive, whose; objective, whom. 

The others have no forms of declension, and are used only 
as nominatives and objectives; which is either singular or 
plural; what and whether are only singular. 

Whether is now hardly used at all, being an old-fashioned word for i which 
one of two ' : thus, 

whether is greater, the gift or the altar? 

171. Between who and what we make a distinction different 
from that which we make anywhere else in the language : who 
(with whose and whom) is used of persons, human beings; what 
is used of everything else, whether living creatures or inanimate 
things. 

172. Which differs from both who and what in being 
selective : that is, it implies a certain known number or 
body of individuals, from among whom the right one is to 
be selected or picked out. 

Thus, if we say 

who did it? 

or 

what did it? 

we do not appear to know anything about the actor ; but 

which did it? 

implies that we know certain persons or things, of which one or 
another must have been the actor. 

Which is used both of persons and of things. 

173. Who and its cases are pronouns only ; what and which 

are also " interrogative adjectives " : see 209. 



74 PRONOUNS. [173- 

Who and what (with other interrogative words) are used in an exclamatory 
sense : see Chap. XVI. 481. 

Where, in composition with prepositions, is often used, especially in anti- 
quated and solemn style, in the sense of what: see 314. 

4. RELATIVE OR CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS. 

174. The demonstrative pronoun 

that, 
and the interrogative pronouns 

who, what, and which, 

are also used in a way which is called "relative"; and, 
when so used, they are known as eelative or conjunctive 
pronouns. 

175. A relative refers or relates (hence its name) to 
another noun or pronoun in the same sentence ; and that 
other, as it generally stands first, is called the antecedent 
(' one going before, predecessor ') of the relative. 

But this " relation " is of a peculiar kind. The relative 
pronoun introduces a separate sentence or "clause" (415), 
having a subject and predicate of its own, and joins that 
clause on to the antecedent in the way of a description or 
limitation of it. 

The relative may be either the subject or object of a verb, or 
the object of a preposition, or a qualifying genitive or possessive. 
Thus, in 

the man who was sick is now well, 

the assertion is that a certain man is well, and he is described as 
having been sick by the clause who was sick, where the relative 
who is subject, relating to man as antecedent, and was sick is pred- 
icate. So also in 

the gift which you ask shall be bestowed, 

he in whom we trust will not fail us, 

the boy whose knife was lost has bought another, 



178] RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 75 

gift and he and boy are the antecedents, and are described by 
the clauses which you ask, and in whom we trust, and whose knife 
was lost. 

Any word or phrase describing or limiting a noun may be thus turned into a 
descriptive clause by help of ,a relative pronoun having the noun as its ante- 
cedent. Thus, 

. ,, a good man 

is the same as 

a man who is good; 

. .. this modestly blushing qirl 

is the same as 3 3 

this girl that blushes modestly. 

It is because the relative thus acts like a conjunction, by joining on a clause 
to the word which the clause describes, that it is also called a " conjunctive " 
pronoun. 

176. The relatives have their value as such, therefore, only 
in what are called "complex sentences" (Chap. XIY.) : that 
is, in such as are made up of two or more simple sentences, 
combined either by these pronouns or by conjunctions into one 
whole. 

The mode of use of these pronouns as relatives is somewhat different from 
their use as demonstratives and interrogatives, and has to be explained over again. 

177. The relative pronoun, when its antecedent is a pronoun 
of the first or of the second person, shares, as it were, the per- 
son of its antecedent, and, if used as subject, takes the verb in 
the corresponding person : thus, 

I, who am your friend, tell you so; 

To thee, who hast thy dwelling here on earth. 

And ill like manner after a vocative : thus, 

Dark anthracite, that reddenest on my hearth! 

178. Who, when relative just as when interrogative, is 
used only of persons, and is both singular and plural. It 
has the possessive whose and the objective whom. 

For example : 

the man who was [or the men who were] recently with us, 

whose character we respected, whom we loved, and 

with whom we shared joys and sorrows, has [or have] 
been taken from us. 



76 PRONOUNS. [179- 

179. When not persons, but other creatures or things, 
are meant, the corresponding relative is which (riot what, as 
in interrogative use). 

Thus, 

we have the letter which he wrote us; 

branches which hang from the tree. 
Whose is often used as the possessive of which : thus, 

a tale whose lightest word, etc. ; 
brown groves whose shadow, etc. : 

but many disapprove this in present use, and think it proper to 
say only of which instead. 

Which, now used only of things, in old times applied to persons also : thus, 

Our Father which art in heaven, etc. ■ 
In old English, and rarely even now, the which is used instead of simple 

which : *for example, 

? T was a foolish quest, 

The which to gain and keep, he sacrificed all rest. 

180. That is a very general relative; it may be used 
instead of either who or which, referring both to persons 
and to things, and to one or to more than one. For ex- 
ample : 

the head that wears a crown; 

one of the best men that ever lived; 

wake! all ye that sleep; 

repent the evil that you have done. 

But that as relative does not follow a preposition. We say 
only the man of whom, the town from which, and so on; not 
of that or from that. 

Yet, if the relative object of a preposition stands apart from 
it, before the verb (323), either that or the other relatives may 
be used : thus, either 

the book that I told you of, 
or 

the book which I told you of; 
but only 

the book of w h i c h I told you. 



183] RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 77 

Some authorities hold that who and which are to be used as co-ordinating or 
simply descriptive relatives, but that as limiting or restrictive (191) : thus, 

this soldier, who was recently wounded ; clouds, which are bodies of vapor; 
but 
the soldiers that were wounded were left ; a cloud that lay near the horizon ; 

and so on. But the best English usage by no means requires such a distinction. 

181. What differs from the other relatives, in that it 
does not have an antecedent actually expressed in the 
sentence, but itself implies both antecedent and relative, 
or is equivalent to that which (that demonstrative and 
which relative). It is not used of persons. Thus : 

what he says is true; I saw what he was doing; 

he understands of what (i. e. that of which) you were speaking. 

In older English, that was often used in the same way : thus, 

throw us that you have about you; do that is righteous. 

A word that combines thus the office of antecedent and 
relative is usually (and conveniently and properly enough) 
called a compound relative. 

182. But who and which often have the same compound 
relative value (chiefly in objective clauses, or such as are 
the objects of verbs or prepositions : see 434) ; and, when 
used in this way, which regains the special selective mean- 
ing which belongs to it as interrogative (172). 

For example : 

we well know who did it, and whose fault it was, and whom 
people blame for it, and which of them most deserves blame. 

183. When the implied antecedent is of a more indefinite or 
undetermined character, meaning ' any one, any thing, any one 
of them/ we use the compounds whoever, whatever, whichever — 
less often, whosoever, etc. ; and, in old style, whoso: thus, 

whoever did it ought to be ashamed; 
he will give you whichever you want; 
they overthrow whatever opposes them. 

These words are called indefinite relatives. 



78 PRONOUNS. [184- 

184. The simple relative pronoun that, when object of a 

verb, or of a preposition following a verb, is very often omitted, 

the descriptive clause being thus left without any introducing 

word : thus, 

the man we saw here is gone; 

the horse he rode on was lame; 

instead of the man that (or whom) we saw, the horse that (or 

which) he rode on, etc. 

In older English, and sometimes still in antiquated or solemn style and in 
poetry, that as relative subject is also omitted : thus, 

I have a grief admits no cure ; 

7 T is distance lends enchantment to the view. 

185. The adverbs when, where, whence, why, whither, how, related with who 
and what, are used in a relative sense almost as if they were cases of these words, 
or equivalent to what and which with prepositions ; and they have the same 
double value, as simple and as compound relatives — except how, which is only 
compound. Thus, 

you see the place where (= in which) he stands; 
or 

you see where (= in what place) he stands. 

And the same thing is true of the compounds of where with prepositions : thus, 
wherewith, whereby, wherein, and SO on (314). 

186. The conjunction as is sometimes used, especially after such, with the 
value of a relative pronoun : thus, 

I love such as love me ; 

such as meaning here the same as those who. 

This is a contracted or shorter expression for such persons as those are who, etc. 

187. By a yet more remarkable contraction, but is occasionally used after 
a negative verb as a kind of negative relative, equivalent to that not: thus, 

there is not a man here but knows it; 

that is, 'a man that does not know it.' It is a contraction for not a man but 
one who knows. 

5. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 

188. It is usual to put into a class together, under the name 
of indefinite pronouns, certain words which, either hy their 
derivation or by the way in which they are used, have a like- 
ness to pronouns. Most of them are used as adjectives also 
(211) ; and they in fact occupy a kind of intermediate position 



189] INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 79 

between real pronouns on the one hand, and nouns and adjec- 
tives on the other. 

189. To this class belong : 

The distributives each, either, and neither. 

The words of number and quantity some, any, many, few, all, 
both, one and none, aught and naught. 

The compounds of some, any, every, and no, with one, thing, 
and body: as something, anyone, nobody; also somewhat. 

The comparatives such, other. 

Of these words, only one and other have plural forms, ones and others; and 
they only rarely or never (except one and other and the compounds of one, 
thing, and body) form a genitive case. 

Each other and one another are pronoun -phrases, having a RECIPROCAL or 
'mutual ' sense, and now used as if simple pronouns. By origin, 

fond of one another, 
for example, is really 

one fond of another, 
and 

they love each other 
is 

they love, each (of them the) other, 

each being in apposition (378) with they : and so on. 



EXEKCISES TO CHAPTER VI. 

ON PRONOUNS. 

In parsing a pronoun, we have first to tell to which of the five 
classes — personal, demonstrative, interrogative, relative, or indefinite 
— it belongs. Then, if it is personal or relative, its person must be 
defined ; if of the third person singular, its gender. 

If it is a simple relative, its antecedent is to be pointed out ; if a 
compound relative, the equivalent antecedent and simple relative are 
to be given. 

If it is inflected, the declension is to be given, and the case and 
number are to be defined. 

The constructions of a pronoun are the same with those of a noun. 



80 PRONOUNS. [chap. 

Example of parsing pronouns. 

These are the men, some of whom visited us yesterday. 

We first divide the sentence into its two clauses (or the two minor 
sentences of which it is made up), and point out the hare subject and 
predicate of each. If written, the clause containing the relative may 
be put under the other, and in such a way that the relative comes di- 
rectly beneath its antecedent ; and then the two latter may be joined 
by a bracket, to signify that their relation is what binds the two 
clauses together into one sentence. Thus : 

These I are the men ) 

some of whom I 1 visited us yesterday. 

' It will be pointed out later, in the Syntax (Chap. XIV.), that such a sen- 
tence as this is called "complex," and that the clause containing the relative is 
Called an "adjective clause/' because it describes the noun men. 

In parsing, we take up the words in the same order as hitherto. 

These is a demonstrative pronoun, in the plural number (sing, this, 
pi. these), and nominative case, being the subject of the sentence, or 
subject-nominative of the verb are. 

The rest of the words in the first or main clause are passed over here, as they 
are like words already parsed (at the end of the preceding chapter). 

Some is an indefinite pronoun (of number or quantity) ; it is unin- 
fected, but has here the value of a plural, since it signifies more than 
one man, and of a nominative case, because it is the subject of the 
sentence, or subject-nominative of the verb visited. 

Whom is a relative pronoun, having for its antecedent men, and 
joining to men the descriptive clause some of whom visited us yes- 
terday, in order to show what men are meant. It is of the third per- 
son, and plural, because its antecedent men is so ; and in the objective 
case, because it is the object of the preposition of, being joined by of 
to some, in order to show what the persons signified by some are a 
part of. 

Of should be next described, and then visited, in the same manner as before 
(p. 63); and then we take up us. 

Us is a personal pronoun, of the first person, inflected thus : I, my 
or mine (etc.: 155); it is in the plural number, and in the objective 
case, because it is the direct object of the verb visited, being added to 
the verb to show whom the persons referred to visited. 



vi.] EXERCISES. 81 

Yesterday is an adverb, qualifying the verb visited, being added to 
it to show the time of visiting. 

If we have a relative pronoun belonging not to the subject but to 
the predicate of the clause in which it occurs, we must rearrange the 
clause so as to put the relative into the usual place of such a member 
of the sentence, whatever it may be. Thus, in the expressions 

the man whom we saw, the book which he was talking of, 

we must change the order of the relative clauses to 

we saw whom, he was talking of which. 

This makes the clauses seem strange and unnatural, because in our 
ways of speaking we always put the relative at or near the head of its 
clause ; but the rearrangement is important, in order to help the 
scholar to realize what part the relative, notwithstanding its position, 
really bears in the making-up of the sentence. Then we still put the 
relative just beneath its antecedent : thus, 

the man) I is gone I ! found the book) 



: 



we I saw whom.) he I was talking of which.) 

In order to make this arrangement, a compound relative has to be 
taken apart into the antecedent and simple relative which would have 
the same value ; and then, after the two are connected by the bracket, 
the word which they represent may be written beside them : thus, the 
sentence 

I cannot imagine what you are talking about 

would be rearranged in this manner : 

I I cannot imagine that ) g. 
you I are talking about which ) S. 

In the Syntax (Chapter XIV.), we shall learn another and briefer way of 
treating a compound relative clause : calling it, namely, a " substantive clause," 
and (in an example like that given here) itself the object of the verb. 

EXERCISES FOR PRACTICE IN PARSING PRONOUNS. 

For practice in parsing the pronouns, especially the personal pronouns, in 
their simpler constructions, the exercises to Chapter II. (pp. 21-23) may be re- 
sorted to. The additional sentences here given illustrate especially the relatives, 
and the more exceptional uses of the other pronouns. 



82 PRONOUNS. — [chap. vi. 

X. Miscellaneous Examples. 

The sun seemed shorn of his beams. 

Earth with her thousand voices praises God* 

The forest's leaping panther shall yield his spotted hide. 
Jura answers, through her misty shroud, 
Back to the joyous Alps, who call to her aloud. 

Here folly still his votaries inthralls. 

The fur which warms a monarch warmed a bear. 

We were not born to sue. 

It was told the king of Egypt that the people fled. 

To him it mattered little which of the two parties triumphed. 

Who hath redness of eyes ? 

Whether of them twain did the will of his father ? 

I that speak to thee am he. 

His praise is lost who waits till all commend. 

All that wealth e'er gave 
Awaits alike the inevitable hour. 

He that would honor win must not fear dying. 
I could a tale unfold whose lightest word would harrow up thy 
soul. 
He that endureth to the end shall be saved. 
Few shall part where many meet. 
By others' faults wise men correct their own. 
Some are happy while others are miserable. 
Some of his skill he taught to me. 
The many rend the skies with loud applause. 
None but the brave deserves the fair. 
Neither has anything he calls his own. 
In this 't is God directs, in that 't is man. 
I hear a voice you cannot hear, 
Which says I must not stay. 
'Tis Providence alone secures 
• In every change both mine and yours. 
Few and short were the prayers we said. 
Whoso sheddeth man's blood, by man shall his blood be shed. 



190, 191] ADJECTIVES. 83 



CHAPTER VII. 

ADJECTIVES. 

190. An adjective, as we saw in the chapter on the 
parts of speech (37-39), is a word used to qualify a noun. 
It is a descriptive word, pointing out some quality or con- 
dition or action or relation, or the like, as belonging to 
the object signified by the noun it qualifies. For example : 

good man; fast horse; 

red ribbon; quiet sea; 

jumping frog ; whipped dog ; 

this book; yonder tree. 

191. The adjective added to a noun does not directly assert 
anything to belong to what the noun expresses. That can only 
be done by means of a verb : thus, 

the man is good ; the horse is fast; 

the ribbon is red; and so on. 

The adjective merely mentions the quality, etc., either imply- 
ing that the quality might be asserted, or limiting the noun to 
those objects of which the quality might be asserted. 

The adjective is sometimes a more important and sometimes a less important 
addition to the nonn and member of the sentence. If we say, for example, 

the brave soldier was wounded with a sharp sword, and his red blood 
flowed from the deep cut, 

the adjectives brave, sharp, red, and deep are simply descriptive or pictorial, 

and the sentence would mean essentially the same thing if they were omitted. 

But if we say 

brave soldiers do not run away; 

sharp swords make deep cuts; 

only vertebrates have red blood; 

the same adjectives are of much more consequence ; since it is implied in each 



84 ADJECTIVES. [191- 

case that, if the described quality were wanting, something quite different would 
be true. 

According to this difference in its value, the adjective is called descriptive 
or co-ordinating on the one hand, and limiting or restrictive on the other. 
But the distinction is one that belongs properly to logic, and not to grammar. 

192. Adjectives, like nouns (117), are divided according 
to their form into simple, derivative, and compound. 

Simple adjectives are those which we cannot in our 
own language trace back to yet simpler words, from which 
they are seen to be derived. 

Examples of such are 

good, red, round, 

kind, harsh, sincere. 

193. Derivative adjectives come, by additions or other 
changes of form, from other words that are in use in our 
language. 

Some of the commonest and most important classes of deriva- 
tive adjectives are as follows : 

a. Adjectives derived from nouns, by a great variety of suf- 
fixes, and with a great variety of meanings : they signify resem- 
bling, pertaining to, possessing, characterized by, made of, free 
from, etc., etc., that which is signified by the noun. Thus : 

with ly, fatherly, homely, daily; 

with ful, truthful, hateful, useful; 

with ous, odorous, mischievous, murderous; 

with al, brutal, fatal, national; 

with ic, despotic, telegraphic; 

with able, marriageable, peaceable; 

with y, filthy, hearty, misty; 

with ish, childish, foolish, Turkish; 

with some, troublesome, toilsome; 

with less, fearless, homeless, endless; 

with en, wooden, golden, silken; 

with ed, horned, jacketed, barefooted. 



194] DERIVATIVE ADJECTIVES. 85 

b. Adjectives derived from other adjectives, by suffixes de- 
noting especially a difference of degree (including the suffixes of 
comparison : see 77, 78). For example : 

with er, smaller, longer, prettier; 

with est, tallest, strongest, ugliest; 

with ish, bluish, roundish, youngish; 

with ly, weakly, cleanly, deadly; 

with some, wholesome, gladsome, wearisome. 

C. Adjectives derived from verbs. These are especially the 
so-called, "participles" (238) : the present participle in ing, as 

loving, giving, putting; 

and the past participle in ed, or en, or without any added suf- 
fix, as 

loved, varied, petted; 

given, bitten, slain; 
sung, wound, fought. 

There is also the common verbal adjective in able, as 
lovable, disputable, distinguishable. 
d. Adjectives derived from other adjectives by prefixes : as, 
with un, untrue, unfaithful, unending; 

with in, inactive, incapable, impure; 

and others, much less numerous and regular : as, 

international, extraordinary, antenuptial, postdiluvial, preternat- 
ural, subacid, superabundant, co-eternal, malcontent. 

194. Compound adjectives are made by putting together 
two (rarely more) words that are used independently in 
our language.- 

The most important classes of compound adjectives are these : 

a. A combination of two adjectives, the former having usually 
the value of an adverb qualifying the other : as 

newborn (that is, ' newly born '), full-fed, 
hard-gotten, fresh-looking. 



86 ADJECTIVES. [194- 

b. A combination of an adjective with a preceding noun that 
limits it in a variety of ways : thus, 

lifelike, milk-white, knee-high, 

homesick, soul-stirring, water-tight. 

C. A combination of a noun with a preceding adjective that 
qualifies it, and with ed added as adjective suffix : as, 

fourfooted, red-haired, low-toned, 

seven-hilled, dark-eyed, old-fashioned. 

This class, derivative and compound together, is an immense 
one, and all the time growing by new formations. 

d. A combination of an adjective with a preceding adverb : 
examples are 

everlasting, never-dying, over-bold, 

under-bred, inbred, foreordained. 

195. From the whole body of adjectives — which, like 
nouns and verbs, are innumerable — we have to separate 
and treat by themselves certain special and limited classes : 
namely, pronominal adjectives, or adjectives related with 
pronouns; adjectives of number, or numerals; and the 

ARTICLES. 

Apart from these special classes, the general mass of adjectives may be con- 
veniently called the 

ADJECTIVES OF QUALITY. 

196- Adjectives do not have in English (as they have 
in many other languages) any inflection, or variation of 
form, to express differences of number or case or gender. 

The only exceptions are the pronominal adjectives (208 ; or 
also pronouns, 166) this and that, which with a plural noun are 
changed to these and those : thus, 

this man, these men; 

that book, those books. 

This is a relic of the inflection of adjectives in ancient English, which was of 
the same sort as the inflection of nouns. . 



199] COMPARISON. 87 

197. But (as we saw in the chapter on inflection, 77) 
many adjectives have a change of form to mark the degree 
of the quality they signify as possessed by the object they 
describe, when compared with other objects possessing the 
same quality. 

Thus, to say 

a long string 

simply implies the quality of length as belonging to the string 

spoken of; 

a longer string 

implies that, of two strings compared, the one referred to ex- 
ceeds the other in length ; 

the longest string 

implies that, among any number compared, the one so called 
excels all the rest in length. 

The word longer is said to be of the comparative de- 
gree, and the word longest of the superlative degree 
{superlative means ' surpassing ' or ' exceeding ') ; and then 
the simple adjective long, with reference to them, is said 
to be of the positive degree. 

And the variation of form of the adjective in this w T ay 
is called its comparison (because of the comparing of one 
thing with others which it implies). 

198. The comparative degree strictly implies a comparison between two 
objects, the superlative between more than two. Yet we sometimes say, for 
example, longer than all ihe others, though longer than either or than any of the 
others would be better. And, on the other hand, both in ordinary talk and in 
literature, it is very common to speak of one of two things as being the longest, 
although to say the longer is more accurate and more approved. 

199. What adjectives shall be thus compared depends partly 
ou their meaning, since some qualities or conditions hardly ad- 
mit of a difference of degree : for example, 

equal, dead, second, yearly, French. 

But it depends much more on their form. 



88 ADJECTIVES. [199 - 

Most adjectives of one syllable may be compared : thus, 
short, shorter, shortest ; 

fit, fitter, fittest ; 

dry, drier, driest; 

but comparatively few of two syllables : examples are 
sincere, sincerer, sincerest; 

able, abler, ablest; 

guilty, guiltier, guiltiest; 

handsome, handsomer, handsomest; 

common, commoner, commonest; 

and of three syllables, almost none. 

200. Adjectives which are not compared have their varia- 
tions of degree expressed by qualifying words, adverbs. And 
especially, the addition of more and most makes a kind of com- 
pound forms, or adjective phrases, which have the same meaning 
as the comparative and superlative degrees : thus, 

famous, more famous, most famous; 

distant, more distant, most distant. 

Even adjectives which admit comparison often form phrases 
of this kind instead : thus, 

fit, more fit, most fit; 

able, more able, most able; 

common, more common, most common. 

And where an object is said to have more of one quality than of another, the 
phrase with more is alone used : thus, 

ihe news was more irue than pleasant (not truer than pleasant). 

201. As the examples already given show, the compara- 
tive and superlative degrees are formed from the simple 
adjective, or the positive degree, by adding respectively 
er or r, and est or st, the suffix usually making an addi- 
tional syllable in pronunciation (not, however, in abler, 
ablest, and the like). 



203] COMPARISON. 89 

202. A few adjectives are irregularly compared : thus, 

good forms better and best; 

bad or ill forms worse (rarely worser) and worst. 

little forms less (sometimes lesser) and least. 

many or much form more and most. 

old forms elder and eldest, as well as older and oldest. 

latter and last really come from late, which, however, in its usual sense, is 
compared also regularly, later and latest. 

near (itself properly a comparative of nigh) forms the superlative next, as well 
as nearest. 

A certain number of comparatives and superlatives have no adjective, but an 
adverb, for their positive degree ; and the superlatives have usually the irregular 
ending most — which, moreover, is often added to the comparative degree. 
Examples are 

from in: inner, inmost or innermost; 

from out : outer, outmost or outermost ; 
from up: upper, upmost (rare) or uppermost. 

Utter and utmost or uttermost are originally the same with outer etc. 

Forth forms further and furthest or furthermost, and also farther and farthest — 
these last two as if from far, and answering as its degrees of comparison likewise. 

Fore (sometimes itself used as an adjective) makes former and foremost or first. 

A kind of superlative is also sometimes formed with most from words which 
do not distinguish any positive and comparative : for example, 
midmost, undermost, hithermost, nethermost, northernmost, southmost; 
and even, in one or two cases, from nouns : as, 

end most, topmost. 

203. The use of adjectives substantively, or as nouns, has 
been already explained (144). 

But an adjective, without being used as a noun, very often 
stands alone, as qualifying a noun that is understood (483), 
or to be supplied in mind from the connection. For example : 

he owns a white horse, and I a black [horse]; 

his horse is white, but mine [my horse] is black; 

he is a just [man], but not a generous man; 

she was by far the loveliest [girl] of the three girls. 

Aud a comparative or superlative is sometimes used alone where with a 
positive we should have to use one, or a noun, or the like : thus, 

she was the loveliest among the three; 

of the pair, she was the lovelier; 
while we should say 

she was the lovely one of the family. 



90 ADJECTIVES. [203- 

It may fairly be made a question here whether we shall describe the adjective 
as qualifying a noun not expressed, or as used substantively ; probably the 
latter is to be preferred. 

Many adjectives, as we shall see later (313 d), are used with- 
out change as adverbs. 

But both nouns and adverbs are also used as adjectives, quali- 
fying nouns. 

Adverbs, indeed, only rarely (except in the predicate : 382), 
and by a liberty which is not generally approved : as, 

the then ruler; my sometime friend. 

But nouns, especially those denoting material, are very often 
made adjectives of, without any change of form : thus, 

a gold watch; a rail fence; 

a steel pen; a stone wall; 

a horse laugh; a bible text; 

noonday dreams; country customs. 

Such expressions originated with compounds, of the kind mentioned in 119 c ; 
but they have ceased to be felt and treated as compounds. 



PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 

204. Pronominal adjectives are in part derivatives from 
the words already described as pronouns; but in greater 
part they are identical with them, the same word being 
used either adjectively, accompanying a noun which it 
qualifies, or substantively, as pronoun, standing for a noun. 

They are divided into classes corresponding with those of 
the pronouns. 

205. The first class is that of possessive adjectives, 
or, more briefly, possessives. 

These correspond to the personal pronouns (153 etc.) : they are, in fact, 
adjectively used forms of those pronouns, and have already been given and 
described as possessive cases. Some of them are real cases, others are deriva- 
tive adjectives used in the manner of cases ; they have become so alike in use 
that we cannot well help treating them all as possessing both characters. 



209] PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 91 

206. The possessives are : 

Sing. PL 



1st i\ 


my, mine ; 


our, ours; 


2d p. 


thy, thine; 


your, yours ; 


/ m. 


his; 


) 


3d p. < f. 


her, hers; 


> their, theirs. 


1 - 


its; 


i 


which may 


be added whose, 


the possessive of who, both 



as interrogative and as relative. 

The distinction of person, gender, and number in these words is, of course, 
a distinction belonging to the persons or things possessing, and not to the per- 
sons or things possessed, or those qualified by the possessives. 

207. The second forms — mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, theirs 
— are used when no qualified noun follows the possessive : for 
example, 

my book and yours; your book and mine; 

the book is hers, not theirs; good morning, brother mine! 
this man is a friend of ours. 

But in older English, and in old-style English, mine and ihine are frequently 
found instead of my and thy, especially before a vowel : thus, 
mine own eyes, thine every wish. 

208. The demonstrative adjectives are 

this, these ; that, those ; yon, yonder. 

The first two pairs are the same as the demonstrative 
pronouns (166), and are used with the same differences of 
meaning when adjectives as when pronouns. 

Yon or yonder points to a remoter object, generally to 
one in sight. 

209. The interrogative pronouns who and whether are 
not used also as adjectives. But which and what are so 
used, and are therefore interrogative adjectives. Both 
of them apply either to persons or to things, and they differ 
only in that which is selective (172). 

Thus, in general, 

what book have you? 



92 ADJECTIVES. [209 - 

but, if two or more are had distinctly in mind, and the question 
is as to the individual one among them, 

which book have you? 

210. Which and what are also the only kelative ad- 
jectives. Both are usually compound relatives, or imply 
the antecedent along with the relative, and which differs 
from what in being selective. 

Thus, 

I know what book (that is, the book in general which) you 
mean ; 

I know which book (that is, the book in particular, of a cer- 
tain known set, which) you mean. 

But which appears sometimes as* a simple relative : thus, 

he was gone a year, during which time he travelled all over Europe. 

The compound forms whichever and whatever, and so on 
(183), have the value of adjectives as well as of pronouns, and 
with a like meaning. 

211. Most of the so-called indefinite pronouns (188), 
with one or two other kindred words, are used also as 

INDEFINITE PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 

Distributive adjectives are each and every, either and 
neither. Of these, every is •always adjective only. 

Quantitatives are some, any, many, few, all, both, and no. 

The phrases a great many and a few (also a little) are used with a following 
noun much as if they were simple adjectives : thus, 

a great many men have been there; he paused a few minutes. 
The quantitative is here really a noun, and the following noun is a partitive 
genitive. 

By a very peculiar construction, many (which is otherwise used only with 
plural nouns) qualifies a singular noun preceded by an or a: thus, 

full many a gem; innocence itself has many a wile. 

Comparatives are such and other: such implying resem 
hlance, and other difference. Other is followed hy than, like 
comparative adjectives in general : thus, 

other worlds than ours. 



214] NUMERALS. 93 

The quantitatives are often called indefinite numerals, 
from their use in describing number. Eut there is also a spe- 
cial class of words used in counting and so on, which are 
quite peculiar, so that they are sometimes reckoned even as a 
separate part of speech. These are the 

NUMERALS. 

212. The principal numerals are those used in count- 
ing, or in answering the question " how many ? " 

They are (in contrast with the ordinals, explained be- 
low, 216) called the cardinal numerals, or the cardinals 
{cardinal means, as used here, 'principal, most impor- 
tant '). 

213. The cardinals are 

one, two, three, four, and so on ; 
eleven, twelve, thirteen, and so on; 
ten, twenty, thirty, forty, and so on; 
hundred, thousand, million, and so on. 

214. The cardinals are used not only as adjectives, qualifying 
a noun, but also substantively, standing for a noun, or con- 
nected with the following noun by the preposition of. Thus, 

either 

three men, 
or 

three of the men. 

Used as nouns, they may all form plurals : thus, 

they walked by twos and threes; 

we are all at sixes and sevens; 

they sat down by fifties and hundreds. 

But the higher numbers, hundred, thousand, million, and so on, usually keep 
the singular form in simple enumeration, even after two, three, etc.; and 
always, if they form part of a compound number, made up of different denomi- 
nations. Thus, we say 

two hundred, or two hundreds ; 

five thousand, or five thousands; 

ten million, or ten millions; 



94 ADJECTIVES. [214- 

but 

ten thousand six hundred ; 

six million three hundred and twenty thousand four hundred and thirty-six. 

215. For two, an old form twain is still sometimes used ; and dozen is a 
common substitute for twelve, and score for twenty. 

From the cardinals come certain classes of derivative words. 
Thus: 

216. First, the ordinals, which show the c order' of 
anything in a series. 

The ordinals are mostly formed from the cardinals hy the 
suffix th : thus, 

fourth, fifth, sixteenth, seventieth, eighty-ninth, 
eighteen hundred and seventy-seventh, and so on. 

But the ordinals of one, two, three are 
first, second, third ; 
and these are used also in the compound numhers : as, 
twenty-first, ninety-second, hundred and third. 

217. The same words, except first and second, are used 
to denote one of a corresponding number of equal parts 
into which anything is supposed to be divided. 

a third (or third part) of an apple; 
six hundredths of the amount. 

In this sense, they are called fractionals. 

The fractional corresponding to two is half instead of second; and instead of 
fourth we more often say quarter. 

218. In order to show how many times anything is taken, 
or hy what it is multiplied, the cardinal numeral is compounded 
with the word fold : thus, 

twofold, tenfold, hundred-fold. 

These words, as they imply multiplication, are called multi- 

plicatives. 

Of the same valne are 

' simple, double, triple, quadruple, 

and a few others in pie, much less often used. 



221] ARTICLES. 95 

The numeral adverbs 

once, twice, thrice, 

also have a similar multiplicative sense. 

ARTICLES. 

219. The articles are two words of somewhat peculiar 
character and office. 

One, the word an or a, is called the indefinite article, 
and is used only with a singular noun ; the other, the, is 
called the definite article. 

220. The articles are adjective words, since they are always 

used along with nouns, to limit or qualify them — in ways which 

it is quite needless to attempt to define here. 

The is a weakened form of the demonstrative adjective that. 
An or a is a weakened form of the numeral one. 

221. An is used before a vowel-sound, a before a conso- 
nant. 

But if a word beginning with a pronounced h has the accent 
on its second syllable, many (or most) persons use an : thus, 

an hotel ; an historical novel ; an hypothesis. 

Before the sound of y or w, however written, only a is proper in modern 

use : thus, 

such a one; a union; a European; 

just as we should say a wonder, a youth. 

The the which we often use before a comparative (adjective or adverb), in 
such phrases as 

the more the merrier, 

the more he looked at her the less he liked her, 
are they the worse to me because you hate them? 
is not an article at all, but an adverb (313 e). 
Again, in phrases like 

two miles a n hour, three shillings a yard, 

the an or a is not precisely the article, but a weakened form of one in another 
sense, that of ' each one, each, every.' 
Once more, in 

he is gone a hunting, they set it a going, 

and the like (which are often, and better, written a-hunting, a-going), the a has 
nothing to do with either the article or the numeral, but is a remnant of an old 
preposition, generally on. 



96 ADJECTIVES. [chap. 

EXERCISES TO CHAPTER VII. 

ON ADJECTIVES. 

To parse an adjective, we have to tell first whether it is an ordinary 
adjective ("adjective of quality"), or whether it is a pronominal 
adjective, a numeral, or an article. 

If a pronominal adjective, its class (whether possessive, demonstra- 
tive, interrogative, relative, or indefinite) must be told ; and if posses- 
sive, from the personal pronoun of what person and number it comes. 

If a numeral, whether it is used with the value of an adjective or 
of a noun, and whether cardinal, ordinal, or fractional. 

If an article, whether the definite article or the indefinite ; if the 
latter, why an and not a, or the contrary. 

The character of the word as simple or derivative or compound 
may be given (at the option of the teacher), and, if not simple, its 
derivation or composition explained. 

If the adjective is comparative or superlative, the fact is to be men- 
tioned, and the three degrees of comparison are to be given. 

An adjective has but one general construction, that of qualifying a noun. 
But it does this in three different ways, which are more fully distinguished and 
defined in the Syntax (Chapter XIII.) : they are called, 1. attributive: as, 
eminent men; 2. APPOSITIVE : as, men eminent for their services; 3. PREDICATIVE 
(40) : as, men are eminent according to their services. 

Example of parsing adjectives. 

This studious boy I te the best scholar among all my hundred pupils. 

After dividing the sentence as we have done before, we first parse 
boy, the bare subject, and then go on to take up the adjectives quali- 
fying it. 

Studious is a common adjective, derivative (it comes from the noun 
study, with the ending ous, and means ' devoted to study'), and 
qualifies boy, telling what kind of boy is spoken of. 

This is a pronominal adjective, demonstrative ; it is in the singular 
number (the plural being these), to agree (76) with the noun boy, 
which it qualifies, being added to show which studious boy is meant. 

In the predicate of the sentence, we take up first (after the verb is) 
the predicate noun scholar, and then the adjectives that qualify it. 



vii.] EXERCISES. 97 

Best is an adjective, in the superlative degree ; it is compared irreg- 
ularly : thus, good, better, best; it qualifies scholar, being added 
to show what kind of a scholar is meant. 

The is a definite article, qualifying scholar. (There is no use in 
making a pupil try to define the kind of meaning signified by an 
article.) 

Next we parse pupils (as joined by the preposition among to best 
scholar, to show toho they are that are exceeded in scholarship), and 
then its qualifiers. 

Hundred is a cardinal numeral, used as an adjective qualifying 
pupils, being added to show how many the pupils are. 

My is a possessive (either possessive case or possessive pronominal 
adjective), from the pronoun of the first person singular, I ; and it 
qualifies pupils, showing whose hundred pupils are meant. 

All is an indefinite pronominal adjective, qualifying pupifs, being 
added to show how many of the hundred pupils are intended. 

If we have a clause containing a relative pronominal adjective, we 
are obliged, in order to arrange it in its proper relation to the other 
clause of the sentence, to take the noun and adjective apart into an 
antecedent noun and relative pronoun. Thus, we arrange the sen- 
tences 

what pupils are here came early, 

we know to which class they belong, 
in the following manner : 

those pupils ) I came early we 1 know the class ) 

who) I are here; they I belong to which.) 



XL Exercise for practice in parsing adjectives. 

The gentle rain refreshed the thirsty flowers. 
A transient calm the happy scenes bestow. 

He was a ready orator, an elegant poet, a skilful gardener, an 
excellent cook, and a most contemptible sovereign. 
Her mother seemed the youngest of the two. 
I promise thee the fairest wife in Greece. 

Stains of vice disgrace 
The fairest honors of the noblest race. 
Beneath those rugged elms, that yew-tree's shade, 
The rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep. 



98 ADJECTIVES. [chap. vii. 

The gorgeous East, with richest hand, 
Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold. 

Very few people are good economists of their fortune. 

Many a carol, old and saintly, sang the minstrels. 

God in the nature of each being founds Us proper bliss. 

Such a man will win any woman. 

Any girl, however inexperienced, knows how to accept an offer. 

A hundred winters snowed upon his breast. 

Every third word is a lie. 

These young men were wild and unsteady. 

By that sin fell the angels. 

Thebes did his rude unknowing youth engage; 
He chooses Athens in his riper age. 

Ayr, gurgling, kissed his pebbled shore, 

O'erhung with wild woods, thickening, green ; 
The fragrant birch and hawthorn hoar 
Twined amorous round the raptured scene. 
A little learning is a dangerous thing. 
Great is truth, and mighty above all things. 
Unto the pure all things are pure. 

A thousand flowers enchant the gale 
With perfume sweet as love's first kiss. 

With lower, second, and third stories shalt thou make it. 

In him the emotive was subjected to the intellectual man. 

They expiate less with greater crimes. 

My father gave me honor, yours gave land. 

The lady is dead upon mine and my master's false accusation. 

There will a worse come in his place. 

Ambition makes my little less. 



222, 223] VEKBS. 99 



CHAPTER VIII. 

VERBS. 

222. We found above (28 etc.), when examining the 
parts of speech, that a verb is a word that tells, or declares, 
or asserts something ; it implies an assertion or predication. 

Hence, as a sentence is an assertion or declaration of some- 
thing, every sentence must have a verb in it; the verb forms, 
alone or with other words, the predicate (27) of a sentence. 

Thus, in 

Troy was, he sleeps, 

they went, the boy was beaten, 

there is an assertion, in each separate case, of a being, or a condi- 
tion, or an action, or the enduring of an action, on the part of 
that which is expressed by the subject of the verb. 

223. Verbs are as many, and of as various meaning, in 
a language, as nouns and adjectives, and it is quite impos- 
sible to classify them by their meanings. But there is a 
certain difference of use which separates them into two 
principal classes. 

Some verbs are usually, and almost necessarily, followed 
by an object — that is, by a noun or pronoun in the objec- 
tive case, signifying that at which the action of the verb is 
directed (71). 

Thus, 

I await, I persuade, I cross, 

seem by themselves incomplete, and we look for some word ex- 
pressing the thing or person that is awaited or persuaded or 

crossed : thus, 

I await the arrival of the mail; 

I persuade my friend to go with me; 

I cross the road to meet him. 



100 VERBS. [223- 

Other verbs, again, do not take, or are hardly able to 
take, any such object ; the action which they express they 
express completely, without an added object : for example, 
I walk, stand, rejoice, weep, and so on. 

A verb of the former class is said to be a transitive 
verb, or to be used transitively {transitive means 'going 
over' : that is, the action of the verb is fancifully said to 
"pass over" from the subject to an object); one of the 
latter class is called intransitive. 

But this distinction is by no means an absolute one ; many verbs are freely 
used in both these ways, and there is hardly a transitive verb in our language, 
that may not also be used intransitively. 

224. According to their form, verbs (like nouns and ad- 
jectives) are either simple or derivative or compound. 

Simple verbs are such as 

be, go, sit, see, give, write. 

225. The most important classes of derivative verbs are as 
follows : 

a. Verbs derived by suffixes, from adjectives and (much more 
rarely) from nouns. The only common suffix is en : thus, 

broaden, harden, fasten, sicken, lengthen, frighten. 

A few words have the suffix ize : as, 

solemnize, humanize. 

b. Verbs derived by prefixes. These come especially from 
other verbs : as, 

awake, arise; befall, belie, bespeak; 

forget, forgive, forswear; mistake, misbehave; 

unbind, undo, unfasten; disqualify, disown, dislike; 

remind, recapture, repay. 
But also from nouns and adjectives : as, 

benight, behead, belittle; 
enthrone, endanger, embody; 
rensw. 



226] 



DERIVATIVE VERBS. 



101 



A few take the suffix en along with a prefix : as, 
embolden, enlighten. 

C. Verbs derived by internal change, by alteration of the 
vowel-sound, sometimes along with other changes, from other 
verbs : thus, 

fell from fall; set from sit; 

lay from lie; drench from drink. 

These are called causatiyes, because they generally signify a causing to act : 
thus, fell means /cause to fall' ; lay means ' cause to lie/ and so on. There 
are but few of them in English. 

d. A very large number of nouns and adjectives are turned 
directly into verbs, without addition of suffix or prefix, or any 
other alteration — except sometimes the change of a final con- 
sonant (99). Examples are : 

to throng or crowd a room, 

to time a race, 

to witness a will, 

to brown a cake, 

to. smooth a wrinkle, 

to halve an apple, 

Verbs derived from nouns and adjectives, in any of the ways here pointed 
out, are sometimes called denominatives (' derived from nouns '). 

226. Compound verbs are made almost solely with prefixes, 
having the value of adverbs, but adverbs which are also prepo- 
sitions, and are more usually called such. Examples are : 
foresee, forebode, foredoom, 

overspread, overturn, overlook, 

outwit, outnumber, outgrow, 

undermine, understand, underlet, 

uplift, uproot, upset, 

withstand, withhold, withdraw. 

A very few compound verbs have as their first element a noun or adjective : 
for example, 

partake (that is, take part), 

browbeat, backslide, fulfil. 



to beard or face a foe, 
to worship God, 
to english a passage, 
to round an angle, 
to lower a bucket, 
to breathe a prayer. 



10a VERBS. [227- 

227. Verbs, like nouns and pronouns, have (as we have 
already seen, 59 etc.) their inflection, or changes of form 
in order to express certain changes of meaning or of appli- 
cation ; and this inflection is called their conjugation. 

228. Thus, verbs are varied, to a certain extent, not be- 
cause of any change in their own individual meaning, but 
in consequence of certain differences in the character of 
their subject — differences, namely, in the number or in 
the person of the noun or pronoun about which they assert 
something. 

This is called the inflection of the verb for person and 

NUMBER. 

229. For example, along with the personal pronouns of 
the three persons (153 etc.), in the singular, we use three 
different forms of the verb, saying 

I love, thou lovest, he loves. 

But no English verb has different forms to put with the 

plurals of these pronouns : thus, 

we love, you love, they love. 

And often the verb of the third person singular is the same 
with that of the first : thus, 

I loved, he loved; I can, he can. 

239. As regards number, the forms of the verb which go 
with thou and with you are generally different : thus, 

thou lovest, you love; 

and the forms which go with singular and plural subjects 
of the third person are often different : thus, 

he loves (or loveth), they love ; 

man loves, men love. 

But the form with I and with we is always the same : 

thus, 

I love, we love. 



233] TENSE AND MODE. 103 

Except in one irregular verb (be, 273), which has a special 
form for its three plural persons, different from any of those of 
the singular : thus, 

I am, we or you or they are ; 

I was, we or you or they were. 

231. Again, verbs are varied in two respects to signify 
real differences of meaning belonging to themselves. This 
is called the inflection of the verb for tense and mode. 

232. Tense-inflection is for the purpose of showing a 
difference in the time of the action or condition. 

Thus, I love is used especially of what is going on now, 
at the present time, and is therefore said to be of the 
present tense ; while I loved is used of something gone 
by or in the past, and is therefore called the preterit 
tense. And we have in like manner, as corresponding 
present and preterit, 

I lead and I led; 

I hold and I held; 

I give and I gave. 

These two are the only tenses distinguished by real inflection 
in our verb. 

233. Mode-inflection is for the purpose of showing a 
difference in the mode or manner of the assertion : whether 
it be a simple out-and-out declaration, or a doubtful or 
contingent assertion, or a command. 

The modes are three : 

1. The indicative, or the mode of simple declaration: 

thus, 

I am, he goes, they went. 

2. The subjunctive, the mode of doubtful or conditional 
assertion : thus, 

if I be; though he go; supposing he were here; 

except God be with him; lest she forget her duty. 



104 VERBS. [233- 

3. The imperative, the mode of command or demand : 
thus, 

go away! be silent! leave us, see him. 

234. The indicative is the mode of ordinary use, and has the 
greatest variety of inflection for person and number. 

The subjunctive is gone almost wholly out of use in the pret- 
erit tense ; no verb except be has a preterit subjunctive different 
from the indicative : thus, 

I was, if I were; 

and even in the present tense, a difference, except in the same 

verb be, is found only in the second and third persons singular : 

thus, 

thou lovest, if thou love; 

he loves, if he love; 



but 



I am, etc., if we or you or they be. 

I love, and if I love. 



Hence the subjunctive, as a separate mode, is almost lost and out of mind in 
our language ; in its place we put either the indicative, or some of the modal 
phrases, compound forms made with auxiliaries, which will be described later 
(279 etc.). 

The imperative has but a single form, which is used indiffer- 
ently as singular and as plural. Its subject, thou, or you or ye, 
may be expressed, coming after the verb ; but it is more usually 
omitted : thus, 

go or go thou, go or go you or ye. 

235. These are all the forms of inflection which the 
verb has in English. 

But there are certain derivative words, made from almost 
every verb in the language, which are so important, and so 
much used, and used in such ways, that they are always 
given along with the inflectional forms, as part of the con- 
jugation of the verb, although they are not verbs at all, 
because they do not really assert anything; they are only 



236] INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 105 

nouns and adjectives. They are called infinitives and 

PARTICIPLES. 

236. The infinitive is a verbal noun, expressing in 
noun-form the action or condition which the verb asserts. 
The participle is in like manner a verbal adjective. 

Thus, to say- 
he gives 

is to declare some one the doer of a certain action ; this action 
itself is expressed by 

giving or to give; 

which may then, like any other noun expressing an action, be 
made the subject or object of a verb : thus, 

giving is better than receiving; 
to give is better than to receive; 
he likes giving; 
he likes to give. 

And the person who gives is described as a giving person, and 
what he gives is a given thing. 

The same person may be described as a giver, and what lie gives as a gift; and 
these words giver and gift are likewise derivatives from give, just as giving and 
given are ; and words like giver are made from a very large part of the verbs 
of our language. But, besides that the infinitives and participles are formed 
from every verb in the language almost without exception, for certain regular 
and definable uses, they also have uses which are "peculiar, like those which 
verbs have, and different from those of any other nouns and adjectives. They 
take the same adjuncts or limiting words that the verbs from which they come 
take ; they are followed by objects, direct and indirect ; and the infinitives are 
qualified by adverbs. Thus, as we say 

I give him gladly my forgiveness 

(where forgiveness is the direct and him the indirect object of give, and gladly 
is an adverb qualifying it), so we also say 

to give him willingly my forgiveness, 
and 

giving him willingly my forgiveness; 

while, if we used an ordinary noun, like giver or gift, we should have to say, for 

example, 

a gift to him, with willingness, of my forgiveness. 



106 VERBS. [237- 

237. There are two infinitives. 

Infinitive means something like ' unlimited, indefinite/ be- 
cause the general idea of action or condition in these words is 
not limited to a particular number or person, as in the ordinary 
verbal forms. 

One is the same with the root (87) of the verb* or the 
simplest verbal form (the same with the imperative, and, 
except in be, with the first person present) : thus, 

go, see, walk, love, give. 

It often has the preposition to put before it as its sign : 

thus, 

to go, to see, to walk, to love, to give. 

The rules as to the presence or absence of the sign to will be given in another 
place (see 440-1). 

The other infinitive is made by the ending ing : thus, 
going, seeing, walking, loving, giving. 

The first is called simply the infinitive, or the root- 
infinitive ; the second is known as the infinitive in ing, 
or as the participial infinitive (because it always has the 
same form as the present participle). 

The infinitive in ing Is by some called the "gerund." 

238. There are also two participles. 

Participle means ' participating, sharing,' because these words, 
while really adjectives, share also in the character of verbs. 

One ends in ing, and is called the present participle, 
because it more often denotes present action : thus, 

going, seeing, walking, loving, giving. 

The other has a variety of endings — d, or t, or n, or 
none at all — and is called the past participle, or the 
passive participle, because it usually belongs to past time, 
or denotes completed action, or condition as the result of 



240] CONJUGATIONS. 107 

suffering or enduring {passive means ' enduring ') the action 
expressed by the verb : thus, 

gone, seen, walked, loved, taught, given. 

A person gone is one who has already performed the act of going ; anything 
seen or given either is undergoing or has undergone the act of seeing or giving, 
as performed by some one : we can say, some one saw it, or gave it — and so on. 

CONJUGATIONS. 

239. If we start from the simplest form of the verb, the 
base of verbal inflection or the verbal root (87), there are 
in English (as in the other languages most nearly related 
with English) two principal ways of making from it the 
preterit tense and the past participle. And, according as 
they follow the one or the other of these ways, English 
verbs are divided into two great classes, which are called 
conjugations, because unlike one another in their mode 
of inflection or conjugation. 

240. The one class or conjugation regularly forms its 
preterit and participle, both alike, by the addition of ed or 
d to the root of the verb : thus, 

love, loved, loved; 
wish, wished, wished. 

This is called the New conjugation (also often the weak, 
or sometimes the regular conjugation). 

The other class regularly forms its preterit by a change 
in the vowel of the root, without any added ending, and its 
participle by adding en or n ; and the vowel of the parti- 
ciple is either the same with that of the root, or the same 
with that of the preterit, or else different from both : thus, 
give, gave, given; bite, bit, bitten; 

fly, flew, flown. 

This is called the Old conjugation (also the strong, or 
the irregular conjugation). 



108 VERBS. [241- 

241. Below are given, by way of model, all the forms of 
two regular verbs, one from each conjugation. 





New Conjugation, 


■ 




Indicative Mode. 




Pers. 


Present Tense. 
Sing. 


PL 


1. 


I love 


we love 


2. 


thou lovest 


you (ye) love 


3. 


he loves (loveth) 


they love 


1. 


Preterit Tense. 

I loved 


we loved 


2. 


thou lovedst 


you (ye) loved 


3. 


he loved 

Old Conjugation. 

Indicative Mode. 


they loved 




Present Tense. 
Sing. 


PL 


1. 


I give 


we give 


2. 


thou givest 


you (ye) give 


3. 


he gives (giveth) 

„ Preterit Tense. 


they give 


1. 


I gave 


we gave 


2. 


thou g a vest 


you (ye) gave 


3. 


he gave 


they gave 


New Conjugation. Old Conjugation. 

Subjunctive Mode. 



Present Tense. 

(if) I, thou, he, etc. love (if) I, thou, he, etc. give 

Preterit Tense. 

(if) I, thou, he, etc. loved (if) I, thou, he, etc. gave 

Imperative Mode. 

2. love give 

Infinitive. 

love or to love give or to give 

Present Participle and Participial Infinitive. 

loving giving 

Past Participle. 

loved * given 



243] CONJUGATIONS. 109 

It will be noticed that the regular verbs of the New conjugation thus have 
only six actually different forms : namely, 

love, lovest, loves (or loveth), loved; lovedst, loving ; 

while the regular verbs of the Old conjugation have seven : namety, 
give, givest, gives (or giveth), gave, gavest, giving, given. 

242. In both conjugations, the infinitive, the imperative, 
and the present tense (in the subjunctive, and the plural 
and first sing, of the indicative) are the same with one 
another, and with that simplest form of the verb which we 
call the root. And the present participle and participial 
infinitive differ from them only by adding ing. We need, 
therefore, to know only the infinitive, the preterit, and the 
past participle, in order to understand the whole inflection 
of any verb. Hence these three are called the principal 
parts of the verb, and, in describing any verb, they are 
given. Thus, 

love, loved, loved; give, gave, given; 

teach, taught, taught; sing, sang, sung; 

go, went, gone; be, was, been. 

243. As regards the inflection of the tenses, the subjunctive 
tenses have but one form for all persons and both numbers. 

In the indicative, the second person singular adds st or est in 
both tenses ; and the addition generally makes another syllable 
— always, if the first person has only one syllable, or ends in a 
sibilant or hissing sound (123 c) : thus, 

lovest, lovedst, confessest, cherishest. 

The third person singular is like the first in the preterit, but 
in the present adds s or es, which does not make another sylla- 
ble except after a sibilant sound. Thus, 

loves, gives, bids, picks, hopes ; 
but 

confesses, fixes, chooses, cherishes, pitches, judges. 

The added s is pronounced as s or as z according to the same rules which 
were given above (123) for the s of the plural of nouns. 



HO VERBS. [243- 

The third person singular present has a second form, made by the ending th 
or eth, almost always making an additional syllable. Thus, 

loveth, giveth, goeth, hopeth, fixeth ; 
but disableth. 

This is an old-English form, now used almost only in solemn style and in 
poetry. 

We now take up the two conjugations separately, especially in order to notice 
their irregularities. 

NEW CONJUGATION. 

244. The regular verbs of the New conjugation, as we 

have seen, form their preterit and their past participle 

alike, by adding ed or d to the root or infinitive. Thus, 

looked, begged, hoped, robbed, raised, wished, 
waited, united, loaded, degraded. 

As these examples show, the added ending makes an additional syllable only 
when the root ends with a t- sound or a d-sound, after which the d of the ending 
could not otherwise be distinctly heard. 

Moreover, the added d is sounded like a t, if the root ends in the sounds of k, 
p, th as in thin, f, s (including x), and sh (including ch) : thus, 

baked, piqued, hoped, betrothed, fifed, paragraphed, laughed, 
chased, raced, vexed, wished, hatched. 

In many words of this class, t was formerly often written instead of d, and 
some people are beginning to write it again now. 

In solemn styles of reading and speaking, the ed is sometimes sounded as a 
separate syllable after all roots ; and then, of course, the d has its proper d- 
sound. 

245. These are the regular methods. But a great many 
verbs of this conjugation are more or less irregular, some (252) 
even to such a degree and in such ways that it might seem doubt- 
ful whether they ought not to be classed with verbs of the Old 
conjugation. 

IRKEGTTLAEITTES. 

248. In some verbs in which the d is pronounced like a t, either ed or t 
is allowed (especially in the participle) to be written : thus, 

dress, dressed or drest; bless, blessed or blest; 

pass, passed or past. 
As we saw above (244), some are extending this class beyond what lias been 
usual hitherto. 

247. In some verbs, after a final n or I sound in the root, either a regular 
form in ed (pronounced as d) or an irregular in t is allowed : thus 

learn, learned or learnt; spoil, spoiled or spoilt. 



253] NEW CONJUGATION. Ill 

And in like manner from burn, pen (meaning 'confine'), smell, dwell, spell, 
spill. 

248. In some verbs, of which the root ends in d after I or n or r, either 
the regular form with ed added, or an irregular, with the final d singly 
changed to t, is allowed : thus, 

build, builded or built; rend, rended or rent; 

gird, girded or girt. 

And the same is the case with gild, bend. 
But lend, send, spend have the irregular form only : thus, 

send, sent. 

249. In a yet larger number of verbs, the vowel of the root is shortened in 
pronunciation, and t is added as ending : thus, 

feel, felt; mean, meant; keep, kept. 

This method is followed also by deal, creep, sleep, sweep, weep. And kneel, 
leap, lean, dream have either the regular or the irregular form : thus, 

kneel, kneeled or knelt; dream, dreamed or dreamt. 

250. A few which have the same irregularity change also a final v or z 
sound of the root to f or s, respectively : thus, 

leave, left; lose, lost. 

So also with cleave ('split': compare 263), reave (almost obsolete), and 
bereave ; but the last lias either bereaved or bereft. 

Cleave meaning ' adhere ' is regular, but clave is sometimes found used as its 
preterit. 

251. A few show a similar change of a final vowel, adding the sign d: 

thus, 

flee, fled ; say, said ; shoe, shod. 

Heard from hear is a case by itself, but has most likeness to these last 
classes. 

252. A number of verbs ending in t or d after a long vowel shorten the 
vowel in the preterit and participle, but take no added ending : thus, 

feed, fed; shoot, shot; lead, led. 

So also with bleed, breed, speed, read, meet; light forms lighted or lit. 

253. And quite a number, ending in t or d, generally after a short vowel, 
make no change at all, but form the preterit and participle like the present : 
they are 

burst hit put shed spit thrust 

cast hurt quit shred split wet 

cost knit rid shut spread whet 

cut let set slit sweat 

A few of these, however, allow also the regular form in ed : namely knit, quit, 
sweat, wet, whet. And spit formerly had sometimes the preterit spat. 



112 VERBS. [254- 

254. A certain class, ending formerly in a k or g sound, change the vowel 
and iinal consonants into the sound aught: thus, 

beseech, besought; buy, bought; bring, brought. 

And so also seek, catch, teach, think; work has either worked or wrought. 

255. Scattered irregularities are the following : 
Sell and tell form sold and told. 

Have, make, and clothe are shortened by loss of the final consonant of the 

root : thus, 

had, made, clad (or clothed). 

Dare is either regular, or forms the anomalous preterit (not participle) durst. 

256. The principal parts being as here stated, the tense- 
inflection is almost always regular, according to the rules already 
given (243). 

Bat have is irregular in the present singular, forming 

I have, thou hast, he has. 

Need has in the third singular present either needs or need. Dare has the 
same irregularity ; and its irregular preterit durst does not take st in the second 
person singular. 

OLD CONJUGATION. 

257. The characteristics of verbs of the Old conjuga- 
tion, as we have seen, are these : that they change the 
vowel of the root, either in the preterit or in the past 
participle or in both ; that they take no added ending in 
the preterit; and that the ending of the participle, if it 
have any, is n. 

258. The regular verbs of this conjugation fall into a num- 
ber of. distinct classes ; but the grounds of the division are only 
to be seen in the older forms of English, and in some of the 
other languages related to English, and the limits of the classes 
have been very much confused by irregular changes. 

259. One cause of the irregularities in our present English 
has been the tendency to change the vowel either of the preterit 
or of the participle, so as to make these two forms agree with 
each other. 



263] OLD CONJUGATION. 113 

Moreover, the en or n which was formerly the constant end- 
ing of the past participle is now entirely lost in many verbs, and 
may be either left off or retained in others. 

Some verbs which were formerly of the Old conjugation now 
either sometimes or always make a part of their forms according 
to the N~ew. Not a few, indeed, have been transferred to the 
New altogether. • 

260. Hence, in classifying the verbs of the Old conjugation, we do not 
try to distinguish the irregular from the regular ones, and merely group to- 
gether those which, as we use them now, are on the whole most alike in their 
inflection. 

261. A class of verbs form their present, preterit, and par- 
ticiple thus : 

sing, sang, sung; begin, began, begun. 

Such are ring, sling, spring, swim, and stink; further, drink, shrink, sink, 

which have for participles also drunken, shrunken, sunken (though these are now 
used chiefly as adjectives). All these verbs, however, sometimes form their 
preterit like the participle, as sung, swum, sunk. Of spin, "the old preterit 
span instead of spun is now out of use, and we say only 

spin, spun, spun. 

And the same is the case with cling, fling, sting, string, swing, wring, slink, 

and win (won). 

In run, ran, run, the present is like the participle. 

262. The verbs bind, find, grind, wind are conjugated thus : 

bind, bound, bound; find, found, found. 

With them nearly agrees 

fight, fought, fought. 

Fraught, from freight, is now used only as adjective. 

263. The principal parts of speak are 

speak, spoke (anciently spake), spoken. 

And like it are conjugated break, bear, swear, wear, tear, all of them having 
an old preterit with the vowel a, now out of use. Bear has two forms of the 
participle, borne and born, of somewhat different meaning. Cleave (' split') is 
like these, or of the New conjugation (250). 

Nearly like these are steal, weave, tread, hut with a preterit in o only : thus, 

steal, stole, stolen. 

Heave and shear, which are usually of the New conjugation, have also, the 
one an Old preterit, hove, the other an Old participle, shorn. Get (with beget 
and forget) has got (anciently gat) and gotten or got. 



114 VERBS. [264- 

264. A few verbs follow, quite irregularly, the model of 
give (241). 

Those most like it are 

bid, bade (sometimes bid), bidden; eat, ate (or eat), eaten; 

see, saw, seen. 

More irregular are 

beat, beat, beaten; lie, lay, lain; sit, sat, sat. 

265. In the same manner as «. 

take, took, taken 
are conjugated shake and forsake. 

And 

draw, drew, drawn, slay, slew, slain, 

have a right to be put in one class with them ; also stand, though it now forms 
its participle like its preterit, stood. 

Wake and awake either follow the New conjugation throughout, or make the 
preterits woke and awoke. Stave, in like manner, sometimes forms the preterit 
stove, and of wax the participle waxen, instead of waxed, is sometimes met 
with. 

266. In the same manner as 

ride, rode, ridden, rise, rose, risen, 

are conjugated also stride, smite, write, drive, strive, and thrive; 

but the last is also of the New conjugation. 

Shine and abide, which should belong to the same class, now form the parti- 
ciple like the preterit : namely, shone and abode ; and shine is sometimes of 
the New conjugation. 

267. The verbs bite, chide, hide (formerly of the New con- 
jugation), slide are conjugated thus : 

bite, bit, bitten or bit. 

268. The verb 

choose, chose, chosen, 

is a specimen of a class that has become almost extinct. 
With it we may put 

freeze, froze, frozen ; seethe, sod, sodden ; 

but seethe is of rare use, aud more usually follows the New conjugation. 

269. The verbs blow, grow, know, throw are conjugated 

thus : 

grow, grew, grown. 

And we may class with them 

fly, flew, flown. 



273] 



OLD CONJUGATION. 



11. 



Sow, strow or strew, and show are throughout of the New conjugation, or 
may make the participles sown, strown or strewn, and shown. Crow is of the 
New conjugation, or may make the preterit crew. 

270. The two verbs 

fall, fell, fallen, 
and 

hold, held, holden (rare) or held, 

really form one class together, however unlike they may seem. 

271. We may class together 

dig, dug, dug (or by New conjugation) ; 
stick, stuck, stuck ; 
strike, struck, struck (or stricken) ; 
hang, hung, hung. 

272. We have finally to notice three or four quite unclassifiable verbs : 
namely, 

come, came, come; go, went, gone; do, did, done. 

Went is properly the preterit of wend (like sent from send), which now, as a 
separate verb, has the regular preterit wended. Did, of all our preterits, pre- 
serves the plainest relic of the reduplication which formerly made all our Old 
preterits. 

Wit, with its present wot and preterit wist (it has no participle), is now 
nearly out of use. Quoth is a relic (first and third persons singular preterit) 
of a verb formerly much used, but now wellnigh obsolete. 

273. Be is made up of parts coming from several different 
roots, and is so irregular as to require to be inflected here in full : 







Principal Parts 










be, 


was, 


been. 






Indicative. 






Subjunctive. 


1. 


am 


are 


Present. 


be 


be 


2. 


art 


are 




be (beest) 


be 


3. 


is 


are 


Preterit. 


be 


be 


1. 


was 


were 




were 


were 


2. 


wast (wert) 


were 




wert, were 


were 


3. 


was 


were 


Imperative. 

be 


were 


were 




Infinitives. 




and 


Participles. 


be 


or to be, being 




being, 


been. 



116 VERBS. [273- 

Be etc. were formerly, and are sometimes still, used for indicative as well as 
subjunctive. 

274. The forms of verbs of the Old conjugation, as here given, are those 
which the best present use approves. But in all the three respects mentioned 
in 259 — namely, dropping or retaining the en of the participle ; making the 
vowels of the preterit and participle like one another ; and mixing forms of 
the New and Old conjugations — there has been much irregularity, especially 
among the older writers of the language ; and some of this remains, particularly 
in poetic use. 

275. Where a double form of the participle is in use, one with the ending 
en and the other without, the former (with en) is apt to be preferred when the 
participle has the value of an ordinary adjective : thus, 

a drunken man; a sunken ship; a hidden spring; a stricken heart; 
cloven hoofs ; forgotten promises. 

Some, like drunken, are almost limited nowadays to this adjective use. And 
there are a number of words in en, now used only as adjectives, as the verbs of 
which they are really the participles form their participles at present in another 
manner. Such are 

molten, shapen, graven, shaven, laden, riven, rotten, swollen, hewn, mown, 

sawn, bounden. 

OTHER IRREGULAR VERBS. 

276. There is a small class of irregular verbs, mostly 
used (see below, 291) along with the infinitives of other 
verbs, to form verb-phrases or "compound tenses/' and 
having neither infinitives nor participles of their own. 
They are 

can, may, shall, and will; must, and ought. 

277. The first four, though now having the value of presents 
only, are originally preterits of the Old conjugation ; and hence, 
like other preterits, they have the third person singular (as well 
as all the plural persons) like the first. Thus, for example : 

1. I can, we can, 

2. thou canst, you (ye) can, 

3. he can, they can. 

May has the regular form mayest in the second person singular; but shall and 
will have shalt and wilt (like art and wert, 273). 



279] VERB-PHRASES. 117 

These verbs have preterits, made according to the New conju- 
gation, but irregular : namely, 

could, might, should, and would. 

They are inflected regularly, taking est or st in the second person singular. 

278. Must and ought are originally preterits of the New con- 
jugation (ought from owe), though now used chiefly as presents ; 
they have no corresponding preterits. Ought forms oughtest in 
the second person singular ; must is invariable : thou must, like 
he must. 

The old present of must, namely mote, is now and then still met with in 
poetry. 

COMPOUND VERBAL FORMS: VERB-PHRASES. 

279. We called (232) I love or I give a present tense, 
and I loved or I gave a past or preterit tense, because 
these two forms of the verb express action in two different 
times, the one present and the other past. 

Now there are other and less simple ways of expressing 
nearly the same difference of time. Instead, for exam- 
ple, of 

I give and I gave, 
we may say 

I do give and I did give. 

The difference between the two expressions is usually that 
I do give, for example, is more emphatic, a more positive asser- 
tion, than I give. But in asking a question, it has come to be 
usual in our language to say 

do I give? and did I give? 
instead of 

give I? and gave I? 

And also along with not, we very rarely say nowadays (as peo- 
ple did in older English) 

I give not, and I gave not; 
but rather, 

I do not give, and I did not give. 



118 VERBS. [280- 

280. In such phrases as I do give, the give is not the bare 
root of the verb, but (as the older English and the other related 
languages show) the infinitive without to. Just so we say, 
without using to, 

I see him give, I heard him speak; 

but, with to, 

I wish him to give, I expected him to speak. 

The do and did are the present and preterit of do (272). 
These are the real verbs in the little phrases I do give and I did 
give; and the infinitive or verbal noun (236) give is their object : 
I do give, for example, strictly means i I do or perform an act 
of giving.' We might properly enough always analyze and 
parse the phrase, and any other similar one, in this manner. 
But the phrase is, as we have seen, a kind of substitute for the 
present tense of the verb give, and the do is used along with 
the infinitive of the verb to help in making it ; and such substi- 
tutes are formed from all the verbs in the language, and are used 
in" making sentences just as simple verbal tenses are used. Ac- 
cordingly, we find it convenient not to analyze them, but treat 
them as simple tenses. We call the phrases 

\ do give and I did give 

the emphatic present and preterit of the verb give. And the 

verb do, which is put along with the infinitive give to help in 

making the emphatic tenses, we call an auxiliary or ' helping ' 

verb. 

A phrase is a combination of two or more words (not including a subject and 
predicate), having in a sentence the office or value of a single part of speech, and 
capable of being regarded and parsed as such. We shall have hereafter to notice 
phrases that are in the same way the equivalents of adjectives, adverbs, and 
so on. 

281. Again, we form yet another kind of present and 
preterit, namely 

I am giving and I was giving, 

by using the present and preterit of be (273) as auxiliary, 
and putting along with it the present participle giving. 



283] VERB-PHRASES. 119 

Here the participle has the value of a predicate adjective (see 
below, 351), qualifying the subject of the auxiliary verb, just as 
the adjectives generous and liberal qualify I in 

I am generous; "I was liberal. 

We might always analyze the phrases in this way in describing 
the sentence ; but it is, as before, convenient to treat them as if 
they were simple tenses. And because in them the action is 
thought of more distinctly as continuing, lasting, being in prog- 
ress, we call these compound tenses the continuous or progres- 
sive present and preterit. 

282. Again, our simple verbal forms have a distinction 

of tense only for the difference of time present and time 

past. If we want to speak of anything as to be done in 

time to come, we use as auxiliaries the present tenses of 

the irregular verbs shall and will (276- 7), putting along 

with them the infinitive of the verb expressing the action. 

Thus, 

I shall give; he will go. 

< This, then, as it signifies future action or condition, we 
call a future tense. 

In these phrases, again (as in I do give), the infinitive is the 
object of the auxiliary considered as an independent verb. 
Shall means originally 'owe, be under obligation'; and will 
means ' wish, resolve, determine.' The phrases really signify, 
then, 

I owe, am bound or obligated to, the act of giving; 
and 

I intend, am determined on, giving. 

283. Out of this difference in the original meaning of the auxiliary has 
grown a difference between the form of the future expression in the first per- 
son on the one hand, and the second and third persons on the other hand. To 
denote simply something that is going to take place, we ordinarily use shall iu 
the first person, and will in the others : thus, 

1. I shall go, we shall go, 

2. thou wilt go, you will go, 

3. he will go, they will go. 



120 VERBS. [284- 

284. To use will in the first person implies rather an assent or promise : 

thus, 

I will go (if it is asked of me) ; 

or, when emphatic, a determination : thus, 

I will go ! (whatever may oppose). 
To use shall in the second and third person implies rather a promise : thus, 
you shall have it; he shall go, rely on me for that; 

and, when emphatic, a determination on the part of the speaker : thus, 
you shall go; I exact it of you; 
he shall go, in spite of him and of you. 

285. But in asking a question, we are accustomed to use shall or will ac- 
cording as the one or the other is to be used in reply. Thus, we say 

shall you go ? shall he go? 
if we expect the reply, I (or he) shall (or shall not) go; but 

will you go? will he go? 

if we expect I (or he) will (or will not) go. 

In like manner, in reporting the statement or opinion of another : thus, we 

Sa ^ you say you shall go, he thinks he shall find it, 

if we imply that the persons referred to would themselves say 
I shall go, I shall find it. 

286. These are only the main outlines of the difference between shall and 
will. To define it completely would take a great deal of room ; and some of 
the distinctions are very delicate and difficult. The people of Ireland and 
Scotland and of a part of the United States have long been inaccurate in their 
use of the two auxiliaries, putting will often where the cultivated and approved 
idiom requires shall: thus, 

I will be able to go to-morrow; 
we will have to do as you say ; 

and the inaccuracy has recently been greatly increasing in the United States. 

287. The preterits of the same auxiliaries, should and would, 

form, with the infinitive, phrases which are especially used to 
express a conditional assertion : that is, one that depends on a 
condition. Thus, 

1 should go (if I could get away) ; 
he would give (if he had the means). 

These, therefore, are called conditional forms. 

Often, also, they are used in expressing the condition itself : 

thus, 

if he should come, you would see him. 



289] VERB-PHRASES. 121 

The difference between should and would is in general the same as that "be- 
tween shall and will, and they are in like manner confused by inaccurate 
speakers : thus, 

I would try in vain to express myself; 

he ought to have known that we would be ruined. 

But in the expression of a condition (as in the example above), should is used 
with all persons. Even shall is, much less often, used in the same way : thus, 
if he shall come, it will be well. 

Should has sometimes its more independent meaning of ' ought/ 
as will and would have that of ' be determined ' : thus, 

he should go, by all means, but he will not; 
he would go, I could not stop him. 
288. Yet again, by using the verb have as auxiliary, in 
its present and preterit tenses, have and had, and putting 
with them the past participle, given, gone, and the like, 
we form two other so-called tenses : namely, 
I have given, and I had given. 

Both these tenses show past action, like the simple pret- 
erit. But as I have given seems to mark the act of giving 
especially as completed, finished, done with at present, we 
call it a perfect tense {perfect hjere means ' complete '). 

And as 1 had given marks the act as completed already 
at some stated time in the past — thus, for example, 
I had given it away before you came— 

we call it a past perfect, or (what is meant for the same 
thing) a pluperfect tense. 

289. Of all the verb-phrases used as compound tenses, those with have for 
their auxiliary are farthest removed from their original meaning, and therefore 
hardest to analyze and explain. They began to be made from transitive (223) 
verbs, followed by an object, which object was qualified by the participle in the 
way of an objective predicate (see below, 369) : for example, 

I have my head lifted ; I have the letter written. 

Then such phrases, which literally expressed only the result of a past action, 
came to be understood as expressions for the action itself, getting the same ^ v 
meaning as our « 

I have lifted my head ; I have written the letter. 



122 VERBS. [289- 

And then, have coming to seem a mere auxiliary of past time, as shall and 
will of future, all verbs, of every kind, finally made their past tenses with it, 
For a long time, however, am and was continued to be used instead as auxiliary 
for some of the intransitive verbs (as still used, for example, in German and 
French) ; and remains of this use are to be seen in occasional phrases like 

he is come, they are arrived, he was gone before you drove up. 

290. The perfect, pluperfect, and future verb-phrases, or com- 
pound verbal forms, are analogous in use with the tenses of the 
simple verb ; they add principally a difference of time to the 
meaning of the verbal root. But the conditional has more the 
character of a mode ; its difference from the future resembles 
that of the subjunctive from the indicative. 

Indeed, the conditional is often used where we might also use the preterit 
subjunctive : thus, instead of 

if I should be so unlucky, though he should slay me, 

that would certainly be better, 

we may also say, 

if I were so unlucky, though he slay me, 

that were certainly better. 

291. And other verb-phrases, of a modal meaning, are made 

with the auxiliary verbs may, can, must, and ought. 

Thus, the phrases 

I may give, I can give, 

as they express especially the" possibility of the action, are called 

potential forms (potential means i having power '). 

And 

1 might give, I could give, 

which are a kind of conditional, of a somewhat different value 

from the other, are called potential past, being formed with 

'the past instead of the present tense of the same auxiliaries. 

And with must and ought (to) we make forms which may be 

called obligative, ' implying obligation ' : thus, 

I must give, I ought to give. 

Not all the combinations of these verbs with an infinitive are properly to be 
regarded as verb-phrases. Sometimes they have as independent a meaning and 
character as other verbs which have an infinitive dependent on them. 

292. As with the present and preterit of have we made, 
adding the past participle of the verb, a perfect and a pluperfect 



294] VERB-PHRASES. 123 

tense, so, with the future, the conditional, and so on, of have, 
we form a future perfect, a conditional perfect, and so on, 
through the whole series of compound forms : thus, 

I shall or will have given; 

I should or would have given; 

I may or can have given, etc., etc. 

293. Once more, we may make continuous or progressive 

forms (281) for the entire series, by putting in each case the 
corresponding tense of the verb be before the present participle : 
thus, 

I have been giving; I had been giving; 

I shall be giving; I might be giving; 

I must or ought to have been giving; 
and so on with the rest. 

But the emphatic forms (280), with do as auxiliary, are made only from 
the present and preterit, the simple tenses, and not from any of the compound 
tenses, whether in assertion or in question and negation. For example, though 
we are allowed to say either 

I do have or I have, does he have? or has he? 

they did not have, or they had not, 
when have is an independent verb, we say only 

I have given, has he given? they had not given, 

when it is an auxiliary — and so with all the other auxiliaries. 

In fact, the emphatic form of be (but compare 474), will, shall, may, can, 
must, and ought is not admitted, even in the more independent uses of these 
verbs. 

294. The infinitives and participles bear their share in this 
expansion of the simple forms of the verb into a scheme of verb- 
phrases. 

Thus, along with the simple infinitive, 

give or to give, 

we have the perfect infinitive, 

have given or to have given; 

and both of these have their progressive forms : namely, 

be giving or to be giving; 

have been giving or to have been giving. 



124 



VERBS. 



[294- 



With the present participle, giving, we make a perfect par- 
ticiple, 

having given, 

with its progressive form corresponding, 

having been giving; 

and, as elsewhere, the same forms serve the uses also of par- 
ticipial infinitive. 

Finally, the past or passive participle, given, has its progres- 
sive form, 

being given; 

and from it is also made a perfect passive participle (without 

progressive form), 

having been given, 

which is a part, rather, of the passive conjugation (300). 

295. If we put all these forms together into one scheme, it 

will be as below. 

The original and simple forms of the verb are here put in small capitals, to 
distinguish them amid the crowd. For brevity's sake, the subjunctive of the 
first four tenses (formed for perfect and pluperfect with the subjunctive of the 
auxiliary have: for example, if he have given) is omitted. Only the first per- 
son singular of each tense is set down. 





Root, 






GIVE. 


w 




Principal Parts, 






GIVE, GAVE, GIVEN 






Present. 




Simple. 


Emphatic. 


Progressive. 


GIVE 


do give 

Preterit. 


am giving 


GAVE 


did give 


was giving 


have given 


Perfect. 


have been giving 


had given 


Pluperfect. 
Future. 


had been giving 


shall or will give 




shall or will be giving 



295] VERB-PHRASES. 125 

Future Perfect. 
Simple. Progressive. 

shall or will have given shall or will have been giving 

Conditional. 
should or would give should or would be giving 

Conditional Perfect. 

should or would have given should or would have been giv- 
ing 

Potential. 
may or can give may or can be giving 

Potential Past. 
might or could give might or could be giving 

Potential Perfect 
may or can have given may or can have been giving 

Potential Pluperfect 
might or could have given might or could have been giving 

Obligative. 
must or ought to give must or ought to be giving 

Obligative Perfect 
must or ought to have given must or ought to have been giv- 
ing 

Imperative. 
Simple. Emphatic. Progressive. 

give do give be giving 

Infinitive. 
(to) give (to) be giving 

Infinitive Perfect. 
(to) have given (to) have been giving 

Present Participle and Participial Infinitive. 
GIVING 

Perfect Participle and Participial Infinitive. 

having given having been giving 

Past Participle. 
given being given 



126 VERBS. [296- 

296. It is impossible to draw any absolute line between such jerb-phrases 
as have been set forth and named above and those yet looser and more acci- 
dental combinations into which words enter in sentences, in order to limit and 
define an action in still other ways, as regards time and manner. 
Thus, one might prefer to class as futures phrases like these : 

I am going to give ; I am about to give ; 

I am on the point of giving. 

There is no very marked difference between 

I may or can give, 
and 

I am allowed to give ; I am able to give ; 

it is in my power to give. 
Nor, again, between 

I must or ought to give, 
and 

I am to give ; I have to give ; 

I am compelled to give ; it is my duty to give. 

But we select, to make up a kind of complete scheme of conjugation, those 
phrases which are on the whole the most frequent and the most regular ; those 
in which the real verbal form has most distinctly the character of an auxiliary 
or helper only ; and finally, those which most nearly correspond to the real 
modes and tenses of the verbs of other languages. The scholar must be careful 
not to confound them with the true verbal forms : they are, after all, nothing 
but phrases, composed of a real verbal form (the " auxiliary") and its limiting 
adjuncts ; combinations of independent words, each of which can be parsed 
separately, as a member of the sentence. It is only as a matter of practical 
convenience, to save time and needless repetition, that we treat them as com- 
pound forms of the verb, and name and parse them in the same way as the 
simple forms. 

There is one more set of verb-phrases, corresponding to the true verbal 
forms of many other languages, yet remaining to be described. 

PASSIVE VERB-PHRASES. 

297. We called above (238) the past participle also the 
" passive " participle, because it usually marks the thing 
described by it as 'suffering/ or 'enduring/ or being the 
object of, the action defined by the verb. 

Thus, a beaten clog is one that some one has been heating ; 
a loved person is one regarded with love ; a lamp is lighted if 
some one has lighted it ; and so on. 

298. Now, by putting this passive participle along with 
all the various forms, simple and compound, of the verb be, 



299] PASSIVE VERB-PHRASES. 127 

we make a set of verb-phrases which are usually called the 
passive conjugation of the verb, because by means of 
them we take what is the object of any verbal form in the 
ordinary conjugation, and turn it into a subject, represent- 
ing it as enduring or suffering the action expressed by that 
verbal .form. 

Thus, to 

the dog b i t him, 

the corresponding passive is 

he was bitten by the dog, 

the object him being turned into the subject he; to 

_, Ishallsee them, 

the passive is 

they will be seen by me; 

to 

you might have given me the book, 

the passive is 

the book might have been given me by you; 

and so on. 

299. To the passive tenses there is no emphatic form, made with do, since 
(as was pointed out above, 293) the auxiliary of the passive, be, never makes 
an emphatic tense-form : we say only 

I am struck; am I struck? I am not struck; 

and so on : not do I be struck? etc. 

But in recent English (probably since the latter part of the last century) 
there have been coming into common use progressive forms for the two sim- 
plest tenses, present and preterit ; forms made with the progressive instead of 
the simple form of the past or passive participle. Examples are 

the house is being built; the book was being printed; 

the dinner was being eaten. 

These are the corresponding passives to the progressive expressions 

they are building the house; they were printing the book; 

they were eating the dinner; 

just as 

the house is built, the book was printed, the dinner was eaten, 
correspond to 
they build the house; they printed the book; they ate the dinner. 



128 VERBS. [299- 

These progressive passive forms are still regarded by some aslmd English, and 
carefully avoided ; but they are also freely used even by writers of the first 
class, especially in England (less generally in America). 

300. The synopsis of the passive conjugation is then as fol- 
lows (omitting the names of the tenses) : 

Simple. Progressive. 

am loved am being loved 

was loved was being loved 

have been loved 

had been loved 

shall or will be loved 

shall or will have been loved 

should or would be loved 

should or would have been loved 

may or can be loved 

may or can have been loved 

might or could be loved 

might or could have been loved 

must or ought to be loved 

must or ought to have been loved 

be loved 

(to) be loved 

(to) have been loved 

loved being loved 

having been loved. 

The past participle, as being in itself passive, is the one simple form in the 
whole passive conjugation ; and, not having be with it as passive auxiliary, is 
able to take it as progressive sign. And being loved and having been loved are 
not only participles, but also (like the other phrases formed with the verbal 
word ending in ing as auxiliary) passive participial infinitive phrases, present 
and perfect. 

301. In distinction from the passive conjugation, the other 
and simpler one is often called the active; and in languages 
which have real verbal forms for both uses, the two sets are 
styled respectively the active voice and the passive voice of 
the verb. 



304] PASSIVE VERB-PHRASES. 129 

302. The series of forms of the auxiliary be, it will be noticed, that make 
the passive tenses, are the same that make the progressive active tenses ; but 
they have with them the passive participle, given or loved, which marks a thing 
as acted on, instead of the active, giving or loving, which marks a thing as 
itself acting. In both cases alike, the participle has the real value of a predi- 
cate adjective (351), describing or qualifying the subject. 

But by no means every case where a past participle is combined with the 
verb be is to be regarded as a passive phrase. Often the participle has the 
value of a predicate adjective merely, and is to be treated like any other adjec- 
tive. Thus, in 

he is fatigued, 

fatigued has as pure an adjective use as weary in 

he is weary; 
also in 

he was fatigued in consequence of over-exertion. 

But if we say 

he was fatigued by his exertions, 

was fatigued is passive, because the sentence is the same as 

his exertions fatigued him, 

cast into a passive form. 

So in 

they were invited, and came, 

the phrase were invited is passive, because it signifies the receiving of the in- 
vitation, the enduring of the action of inviting ; but in 
they came, for they were invited, 

it is not passive, because invited signifies rather the condition resulting from 
previous action ; in active form it would be 

for we had invited them, 

And in like manner in other cases. According as the participle denotes 
actual enduring of action, or condition as the result of action, its combinations 
with be are or are not passive phrases. 

303. Phrases of nearly the same meaning with the ordinary passive ones 
are made also with the verbs become and get: thus, 

he became frightened ; he has got beaten ; 

but it is not usual to reckon them as passive. 

304. As a passive form is a phrase by which the object of an 
action expressed by a verb is turned into a subject, passives are 
regularly made only from transitive verbs (223), or those that 
take a direct object. 

But this rule is not at all strictly observed in English. Ob- 
jects of prepositions and indirect objects of verbs are also some- 
times made into subjects of corresponding passive phrases. 



130 VERBS. [305- 

305. We often separate a noun or pronoun that is really governed by a 
preposition (73) from that preposition, leaving the latter after the verb, as if 
it were rather an adverb qualifying the verb. Thus, instead of 

I had already thought of that plan, the spoon with which he ate; 

we say also 

that plan I had already thought of; the spoon which he ate with. 

So it comes to seem to us as if thought of and ate with were transitive verbs, 

and plan and which their direct objects ; and we make the corresponding 

passives, 

that plan had been already thought of by me; 

the spoon which was eaten with by him. 

This kind of passive is very common. Other examples are 

she was talked about ; the journey has been resolved on ; 

the sun must not be looked at; the carriage shall be sent for; 

his decision is appealed from. 

Even when a verb is transitive and has a direct object, besides being followed 
by a preposition with its object, the latter is sometimes made the subject of the 
corresponding passive phrase. Thus, the sentence 

we take no notice of such fellows 
may be made passive either as 

no notice is taken by us of such fellows, 
or as 

such fellows are taken no notice of by us. 
And for 

they made much of him, 

we have the double passive form, 

much was made of him ; he was made much of. 

Again, in such phrases as 

they gave this man to understand (so and so); 
I told him to leave; 

the words this man and him are strictly indirect objects, standing to the verb 
in the relation of a dative (139) and not an accusative. Yet we turn them 
sometimes (it is not allowed in the case of many verbs) into subjects of passive 
phrases : thus, 

this man was given to understand ; he was told by me to leave. 

REFLEXIVE AND IMPERSONAL VERBS. 

306. Such, forms as 

I wash myself, we had washed ourselves, 

thou washedst thyself, you will wash yourselves (or yourself), 

he has washed himself, they would wash themselves, 



307] REFLEXIVE AND IMPERSONAL VERBS. 131 

in which the object denotes the same person or thing as the 

subject, are sometimes called a reflexive conjugation, or the 

verb in them is said to be used reflexively (the action being 

made to ' turn back ' upon the actor, instead of " passing over," 

transitively, to a different object). 

There is, however, no reason for taking any particular account of such forms 
in English. 

307. Verbs used with the subject it, when it does not mean 

any definite actor, but only helps express that some action or 

process is going on (163 b), are called impersonal verbs, or are 

said to be used impersonally. Examples are, 

it rains; it is fine weather; 

it grew dark fast; it will fare ill with him. 



EXERCISES TO CHAPTER VIII. 

ON VERBS. 

Under the name " verb " we do not, here or anywhere else, include infinitives 
or participles, except as they are nsed along with auxiliaries to form verb- 
phrases. So far as they differ from other nouns and adjectives, they will be 
considered in a later chapter (XV. ). 

In describing a verb, we have first to see whether it is a simple verb 
or real verb-form, or a verb-phrase. If it is a verb-phrase, it must be 
taken apart into the auxiliary and the infinitive or participle which 
goes with this to make up the phrase. Then, if the auxiliary itself is 
a verb-phrase, it may, at the discretion of the teacher, be divided 
again — and so on, till only a simple verb-form remains. 

The next question is, whether the verb is transitive or intransitive ; 
then, of which conjugation ; if of the New, whether regular or irreg- 
ular ; the principal parts are then to be given (with as much of the 
rest of the conjugation as the teacher shall think best). Then the 
mode and tense are to be stated, and the person and number ; and the 
tense may be inflected. 

If the verb is clearly derivative or compound, this should be 
pointed out. 



132 VERBS. [chap. 

The verb, in an assertive sentence, has but one construction, that of 
being the predicate of the sentence, of asserting something about a 
subject ; we need, then, only to point out what the subject-nominative 
of the verb is, and that the verb agrees with its subject in number 
and person — being always of the third person if the subject is a 
noun. 

Example of parsing verbs: 

You gave us our orders; we listened, and we shall not forget 

them. 

All the words except the verbs in these clauses may be passed over 
here, as the way of parsing them has been sufficiently explained al- 
ready. 

Gave is a verb, transitive (because it takes a direct object, showing 
what is given), of the Old conjugation : principal parts, give, gave; 
given ; it is in the indicative mode, preterit tense, which is thus in- 
flected : I gave, thou gavest, he gave, we, you, they gave; it is of 
the second person plural, to agree with its subject, the pronoun you. 

Listened is an intransitive verb, of the New conjugation (because it 
forms its preterit and participle alike, by the addition of ed) ; it is 
made in the preterit indicative, and is of the first person plural, to 
agree with its subject, the pronoun we. 

Shall forget is a verb-phrase, made up of the auxiliary shall and 
the infinitive forget, the two forming together the so-called " future 
tense n of the verb forget. Forget is a compound verb, made up of 
get and the prefix for ; it is transitive, of the Old conjugation (prin- 
cipal parts, forget, forgot, forgotten) ; it is of the first person plural, 
to agree with its subject, the pronoun we. 

One or two further examples will illustrate the way in which the analysis of 
an intricately compound verb-phrase may be, if desired, followed up to the 
end, and that in which the passive phrases of various kinds may be treated. 

He must have been suffering intensely, since his leg was broken. 
Must have been suffering is a verb-phrase, made up of the auxil- 
iary must have been and the present participle suffering, the two 

composing together the so-called " progressive " form of the " obliga- 
tive perfect " of the verb suffer- The auxiliary must have been, 
again, is also a verb-phrase, made up of the auxiliary must have and 
the past participle been, the two making together the so-called " obli- 
gative perfect " of the verb be. The auxiliary must have, once more, 



viii.] EXERCISES. 133 

is a verb-phrase, composed of the auxiliary must and the infinitive 
have, the two making together the so-called " obligative " of the verb 
have. Must, finally, is an irregular verb, having no other form than 
this, and principally used as auxiliary. Suffer is a regular verb etc. 
etc. (transitive, but here used intransitively). 

Was broken is a passive verb-phrase, composed of the auxiliary 
was and the past participle broken, of the verb break. Break is etc. 
etc. It agrees in number and person with its subject leg, which 
would be the direct object of the verb in the corresponding active 
sentence, [he] broke his leg. 

The turning of the passive phrase into the corresponding active 
one is always desirable, and is quite necessary where the more irregu- 
lar passive constructions appear, as in 

the child shall be taken good care of by us. 

Here, after parsing the passive verb-phrase shall be taken, in the 
same manner as was broken above, we must add that the sentence is 
the converse of the active sentence 

we will take good care of the child; 
and that the object of the preposition of in the latter has been made 
the passive subject, the of remaining with the value of an adverb 
qualifying the participle taken, and the direct object of the active 
verb, good care, being left as a kind of adverbial adjunct to the same 
participle. 

XII. Exercise for practice in parsing verbs. 

The mellow year is hasting to its close; 
The little birds have almost sung their last. 
Great Nature spoke ; observant man obeyed ; 
Cities were formed ; societies were made. 

By slow degrees the whole truth came out. 
Rarely did the wrongs of individuals come to the knowledge of 
the public 

She gave me of the tree, and I did eat. 

Wherefore plucked ye not the tree of life ? 

I did mark how he did shake. 

Truth, crushed to earth, shall rise again. 

Milton! thou shouldst be living at this hour. 

With such a prize no mortal must be blessed. 

Who would be free, himself must strike the blow. 



134 VERBS. . [chap. 

I tell you that which ye yourselves do know. 

We did not do these things in the good old days. 

Judges and senates have been bought for gold. 

A lovelier flower on earth was never seen. 

When I shall have brought them into the land, then will they 
turn to other gods. 

I thought I should have seen some Hercules. 

Without the art of printing, we should now have had no learn- 
ing at all ; for books would have perished faster than they could 
have been transcribed. 

They apprehended that he might have been carried off by gyp- 
sies. - , t 

I do entreat that we may sup together. 

No man can do these miracles, except God be with him. 

They shall pursue thee until thou perish. 

She '11 not tell me if she love me. 

If thou hadst said him nay, it had been sin. 

Hugo is gone to his lowly bed. 

Men were grown impatient of reproof. 

The Picts were never heard of in history after these great de- 
feats. 

This work cannot be dispensed with by any book-lover. 

The most sacred things may be made an ill use o£ 

It is laid hands upon and kissed. 

So am I given in charge. 

The very door-step is worn with my feet. 

The barley was just reaped. 

She is wedded; her husband is banished. 

Thus it was now in England. 

Wilfrid had roused him to reply. 

He was forbidden access to the sacrifices ; he was refused the 
protection of law. 

You would be taught your duty. 

Plans and elevations of their palace have been made for them, 
and are now being engraved for the public. 

Some criminal is being tried for murder. 

My Prometheus, which has been long finished, is now being 
transcribed. 

It is acting the evil which is being accomplished within him. 



VIII.] 



EXERCISES. 



135 



Alphabetical List of Irregular Verbs. 

Below are given, in alphabetical order, the verbs of the Old conjugation and 
the irregular verbs of the New, with reference from each to the paragraph where 
its conjugation is described. 



abide, 266 


do, 272 


lead, 252 


shake, 265 


stick, 271 


awake, 265 


draw, 265 


lean, 249 


shall, 277 


sting, 261 


be, 273 


dream, 249 


leap, 249 


shear, 263 


stink, 261 


bear, 263 


drink, 261 


learn, 247 


shed, 253 


stride, 266 


beat, 264 


drive, 266 


leave, 250 


shine, 266 


strike, 271 


begin, 261 


dwell, 247 


lend, 248 


shoe, 251 


string, 261 


bend, 248 


eat, 264 


let, 253 


shoot, 252 


strive, 266 


bereave, 250 


fall, 270 


He, 264 


show, 269 


strow,-ew, 


beseech, 254 


feed, 252 


light, 252 


shred, 253 


swear, 263 


bid, 264 


feel, 249 


lose, 250 


shrink, 261 


sweat, 253 


bind, 262 


fight, 262 


make, 255 


shut, 253 


sweep, 249 


bite, 267 


find, 262 


may, 277 


sing, 261 


swim, 261 


bleed, 252 


flee, 251 


mean, 249 


sink, 261 


swing, 261 


blow, 269 


fling, 261 


meet, 252 


sit, 264 


take, 265 


break, 263 


fly, 269 


mote, 278 


slay, 265 


teach, 254 


breed, 252 


forsake, 265 


must, 278 


sleep, 249 


tear, 263 


bring, 254 


freeze, 268 


need, 255 


slide, 267 


tell, 255 


build, 248 


freight, 262 


ought, 278 


sling, 261 


think, 254 


burn, 247 


get, 263 


pen, 247 


slink, 261 


thrive, 266 


burst, 253 


gild, 248 


put, 253 


slit, 253 


throw, 269 


buy, 254 


gird, 248 


quit, 253 


smeU, 247 


thrust, 253 


can, 277 


give, 264 


quoth, 272 


smite, 266 


tread, 263 


cast, 253 


go, 272 


read, 252 


sow, 259 


wake, 265 


catch, 254 


grind, 262 


reave, 250 


speak, 263 


wax, 265 


chide, 267 


grow, 269 


rend, 248 


speed, 252 


wear, 263 


choose, 268 


hang, 271 


rid, 253 


spell, 247 


weave, 263 


cleave, 250, 263 


have, 255-6 


ride, 266 


spend, 248 


weep, 249 


cling, 261 


hear, 251 


ring, 261 


spill, 247 


wend, 272 


clothe, 255 


heave, 263 


rise, 266 


spin, 261 


wet, 253 


come, 272 


hide, 267 


run, 251 


spit, 253 


whet, 253 


cost, 253 


hit, 253 


say, 251 


split, 253 


will, 277 


creep, 249 


hold, 270 


see, 264 


spoil, 247 


win, 261 


crow, 269 


hurt, 253 


seek, 254 


spread, 253 


wind, 262 


cut, 253 


keep, 249 


seethe, 268 


spring, 261 


wit, 272 


dare, 255-6 


kneel, 249 


sell, 255 


stand, 265 


work, 254 


deal, 249 


knit, 253 


send, 248 


stave, 265 


wring, 261 


dig, 271 


know, 269 


set, 253 


steal, 263 


write, 266 



136 ADVERBS. [308- 



CHAPTER IX. 

ADVERBS. 

308. We saw in the second chapter (41 - 2) that while a 
word that qualifies a noun is called an adjective, one that 
qualifies a verb is called an adverb ; and also that, besides 
verbs, adverbs qualify adjectives and sometimes other ad- 
verbs. Thus, 

he spoke truly; a truly upright man; 

I see him very often. 

That adverbs sometimes also qualify prepositions, is pointed out below (381) . 

309. Not all adverbs can be used with all the parts of speech that adverbs 
qualify. 

The adverbs that qualify other adverbs are almost only those of degree : as 
very, too, more, most. 

The same are used most freely with adjectives. But, as adjectives shade off 
into participles, implying something of condition or action, they take more or 
less freely the whole series of qualifying adverbs which the verb takes. 

On the other hand, adverbs of degree are less used with verbs. Some of the 
commonest of them, as very and too, even do not go with verbs directly at all ; 
they have to be changed to very much, too much. 

Hence these are also avoided with past participles, except such as have been 
turned fully into adjectives : thus, we say 

very timid, but very much frightened ; 

very glad, but very much rejoiced ; 

too weary, but too much fatigued ; 

too angry, but too much enraged. 

310. Adverbs shade off into prepositions and conjunctions ; 
and the same word, often, is used as two of these three parts of 
speech, or even as all the three. 

Thus, the oldest and simplest prepositions, such as 
in, on, off, up, to, 



311] CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS. 137 

were originally adverbs, and most of them are still used as such : 
for example, 

he comes in; they ran off; 

it turned up; move to and fro. 

And when an adverb, instead of qualifying simply the verb, 
the word of action, in a sentence, qualifies in meaning rather the 
whole sentence, showing its relation to another sentence or word, 
it gets the value of a conjunction, and may be named and parsed 
as one. Compare 331. 

311. Adverbs in English are innumerable, and of the 
most various meaning and use. 

But we may divide them roughly into the following classes : 

a. Adverbs of place and motion : as, 

here, there, yonder, below, above, in, out, 
up, down, back, forward, hither, hence; 

b. Adverbs of time and succession : as, 

then, now, formerly, hereafter, always, 
often, seldom, never, soon, afterward, 
next, once, twice, first, thirdly, fourthly. 

C. Adverbs of manner and quality : as, 

so, thus, somehow, otherwise, well, ill, 
truly, foolishly, roundly, faithfully. 

d. Adverbs of measure and degree : as, 

much, little, more, least, almost, all, 
scarcely, quite, very, enough, greatly. 

e. Adverbs of modality, or modal adverbs — such as 
show the way in which the thought is conceived by the 
speaker, the relation of one thought to another, and so on : 
thus, affirmative adverbs are, for example, 

surely, certainly, indeed ; 
negative are 

not, noways; 



138 ADVERBS. [311- 

potential are 

perhaps, possibly, probably; 

causal are 

hence, therefore, accordingly. 

The modal adverbs oftenest come to be used as conjunctions. 
The same adverb may be of one and another class, in different meanings and 
connections. 

312. Adverbs, again, like the other parts of speech, are 
either simple, derivative, or compound. 

Examples of simple adverbs, or of such as cannot be traced 
to simpler forms without going outside of English, are 

so, now, ill, much, quite, enough, often. 

313. The principal classes of derivative adverbs are as 
follows : — 

a. Adverbs are formed from adjectives with the suffix 
ly : examples are 

truly, wholly, hastily, distressingly, ponderously, disinterestedly. 

This is by far the largest class of our adverbs ; most 
adjectives of quality, and some of other kinds, take the 
suffix ly to make a corresponding adverb. 

But adjectives in ble shorten blely into bly: thus, 
ably, terribly, respectably. 
And those in ic change the ic into ical before ly : thus, 
frantically, rustically, authentically. 

b. A few adverbs are formed from adjectives and nouns by 
the suffix wise : thus, 

likewise, otherwise, crosswise, lengthwise. 

These might almost more properly be called compound, since wise has not 
gone absolutely out of use as an independent word. 

C. Adverbs of direction are formed from other adverbs (rarely 
adjectives and nouns), by the suffix! ward* or wards: thus, 

toward or towards, upward or upwards, forward, 
backward, afterward, downward, homeward, shoreward. 



313] DERIVATIVE ADVERBS. 139 

d. Not a few adjectives are used as adverbs without any 
change of form : thus, 

much, more, little, all, ill, fast, far. 

Some such adjectives take also the ending ly, there being some 
difference generally in regard to meaning between the form with 
ly and the one without it : thus, 

even and evenly; most and mostly; 

hard and hardly; late and lately; 

wide and widely; sore and sorely. 

In poetry, especially, the use of an adjective as adverb 
directly, without any added ending, is very coimnon : examples 
are, 

the birds sang clear; rivers gliding free; 

the listener scarce might know; soft sighed the flute. 

A few adverbs are adverbially used cases of nouns : thus, 
home, back, half, 

which are objective cases; and needs, which is a possessive 
case ; and wise, ways, days, times, and so on, in compound ad- 
verbs, are of the same origin. 

e. Three series of adverbs corresponding to one another come 
from pronominal roots : they are 

here, hither, hence; 

there, thither, thence, then, thus; 

where, whither, whence, when, why, how. 

The last series, when used relatively, are conjunctions rather than adverbs : 
see 331. And the the of such phrases as 

the sooner the better 

is really a pronominal adverb, of the there series, meaning (relatively) ' by how- 
much ' and (demonstratively) 'by so much.' 

f. A number of adverbs come from nouns and adjectives by 
the prefix a (usually for earlier on) : thus, 

aback, ahead, aside, afoot, athirst; 
aright, anew, along, abroad, afar. 



140 ADVERBS. [313- 

And the be of betimes, beside, beyond, between, before, and 

so on, is in like manner from the preposition by. 

314. Compound adverbs are mostly little phrases of two 
(rarely more) words, which have as it were grown together into 
one : for example, 

always, already, almost; somehow, sometimes ; henceforward. 
Such combinations of a preposition with the word which it 
governs are especially common : thus, 

indeed, erewhile, overhead, beforehand, 

perhaps, forsooth, forever. 

The adverbs here, there, and where are combined with many 
prepositions, forming compound adverbs which are equivalent to 
it, this or that, and which or what, along with the preposition : 
thus, 

herein (== in this) lies the difficulty; 
in the day thou eatest thereof (= of it) ; 

in whatsoever state I am, therewith (= with that) to be content; 
the means whereby (= by which) I live ; 
wherewith (= with what) shall I save Israel? 

315. We have also many adverb-phrases, generally like the 
compound adverbs, only not grown together into one word like 
these. They answer the purpose of single adverbs, and often 
are not easily analyzed and parsed separately, because they either 
contain words which are rarely or never found except in these 
phrases — thus, 

by stealth, of yore, at random, in lieu — 

or are of irregular construction, being made up of an adjective 

(really, one used as a noun) with a preposition governing it : 

thus, 

in vain, in short, of old, of late, 

at all, at last, on high, ere long, from far, for good. 

316. Many adverbs of quality, like adjectives of the same 
kind, are capable of being made to express various degrees of 






318] COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 141 

quality, by adding those adverbs which are used for the same 
purpose along with adjectives : for example, 

truly, more truly, most truly, less truly, etc. 
Also, of the adjectives which are used as adverbs without 
change of form, the comparative and superlative degrees are 
generally used adverbially likewise : thus, 

better, best; worse, worst; faster, fastest. 
But only a very few words that are always adverbs have 
a real comparison of their own : examples are 

soon, sooner, soonest; often, oftener, oftenest. 

Rather is a comparative which has at present no corresponding positive or 
superlative. 

317. The adverb there is very peculiarly used, as if a kind of 
indefinite grammatical subject (163 a) of a verb, especially 
the verb be : for example, 

there is no money here; a land where there is gold; 

there were giants in the land; there can be no retreat; 
there fell a frost; there came a voice from heaven. 

The real or logical subject, with which the verb agrees in 
number, regularly follows the verb : not, however, in interroga- 
tive and relative sentences : thus, 
what there is, is good; what is there that he cannot do? 

RESPONSITES. 

318. The words yes and no, which are used in replying or 
responding to a question, and are therefore called responsives, 
were originally adverbs, but are so no longer, because they 
never combine with other words, as modifying or limiting them, 
but are in themselves complete answers. 

Thus, in answer to the question 

. will you go? 

yes and no mean respectively 

I will go ; or I will not go. 

In answer to 

., are you frightened? 

they mean 

I am frightened ; or I am not frightened ; 

and so on. 



142 ADVERBS. [318- 

The responsives stand thus for a whole sentence, and hence are not properly 
"parts of speech " (19, 20) at all, in the real meaning of that name, but are 
more analogous with the interjections (50). But although they form a class by 
themselves, it is too small a class to call for more than these few words of 
explanation. 



PARSING OF ADVERBS. 

In parsing an adverb we need, as in the case of the other parts of speech, to 
point out its kind, its form, and its construction. 

As regards the construction, the adverb is always a qualifying word, and has 
(380) no variety of uses as such ; it is enough, then, to mention what word is 
qualified by it. 

Into the question of form, as derivative or compound, the pupil may be re- 
quired to enter according to his stage of advancement, at the discretion of 
the teacher. But adverbs coming from adjectives by the common suffix ly 
should, at any rate, be pointed out and explained from a very early stage ; and 
also, usually, the adverbs which are identical in form with adjectives. If the 
word is a comparative or superlative, this should be noticed ; otherwise, the 
subject of comparison may be passed over. 

The classification of adverbs is not without difficulty, since the classes are not 
divided by fixed lines, and the same word may be put in one or another class 
according to slight changes of its meaning. It is, perhaps, of more use to let 
the pupil tell in what way, or for what purpose, the adverb qualifies the word 
to which it is added, without attempting precisely to define its class. 

An adverb-phrase may be simply defined as such, or it may be analyzed and 
its parts defined, as shall seem best to the teacher. 

Examples of adverbs have been given abundantly in the exercises on previous 
chapters, and others will be given in the exercises on Syntax (Chapters XIII., 
XIV. ) : it is therefore unnecessary to add any here. 



321] PREPOSITIONS, 143 



CHAPTER X. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

319. A preposition, as we have already seen (44-6) is 
not a word that names or points out or asserts or qualifies 
or describes anything; it only shows a relation. It is a 
word that connects other words, showing the relation be- 
tween them. 

Regularly and usually, a preposition is followed by a 
noun or pronoun. It is a connecting word by which a 
noun or pronoun is made to limit some other word, or by 
which it is attached, to that other word in a relation w T hich 
the preposition defines. 

320. The noun or pronoun on which the preposition ex- 
ercises its connecting or attaching force is called its object, 
and, like the object of a verb, is in the objective case : 

thus, 

with me; from him; to us; on them. 

It is, then, said of the preposition, as of the verb, that it 
governs its object in the objective case : that is, requires it to 
take the form of that case. 

321. The word with which the noun or pronoun is 
brought into relation by the preposition may be any of the 
other parts of speech already described. 

Thus, it may be 
a. A verb : as, 

he went with us; * 

it fell through the air to the ground; 

put it on the table or into your pocket; 

they stayed until night under shelter. 



144 PREPOSITIONS. [321- 

b. An adjective : as, 

good for nothing; free from dirt; 

hoary with age; prized above measure. 

C. An adverb (rarely) : as, 

sufficiently for my purpose. 

d. Another noun or pronoun : as, 

a box of wood ; the top of the house ; 

a ring for the finger; doors with hinges; 

pins without heads; souls above deceit; 

they of Italy; who among you? 

And, as will be pointed out in the Syntax (400 etc.), according to these dif- 
ferent offices, the phrase composed of the preposition and its object is called by- 
different names. 

322. But a preposition not unfrequently takes for its object 
an adverb (of place or time) : thus, 

from above, from behind, since then, 
before then, till now, to here, at once, 
between now and then, for ever; 
and hence also, naturally enough, a prepositional adverb-phrase 
(402), or a phrase having the value of an adverb, and made up 
of a preposition and its object : thus, 

from under the house; till after the ball; 

since over two weeks. 

It has been already pointed out (315) that in certain adverbial phrases a 
preposition governs an adjective (really used as a noun) : thus, 

on high, of old, in vain, for good. 

323. A preposition, especially in poetry, is sometimes made 
to follow instead of preceding the word it governs : thus, 

to wander earth around; ties all other ties above; 
the fields among; look the whole world over. 

But very frequently, in all styles of English, the object of a 
preposition is placed before the verb in the sentence, while the 
preposition comes after it : for example, 



325] PREPOSITIONS. 145 

your objections we make no account of; 
this house I never again show my face in; 
what did you come for? 
John is the name that he answers to. 

Then, if the relative word is omitted, as often happens (184), 
the preposition still remains in its place after the verb : thus, 

John is the name he answers to. 

And in other constructions, in which there is no expressed 
object of the preposition, it remains with the verb, or with an 
infinitive or participle, having the value of an adverbial adjunct : 
thus, 

a greater blockhead than I took you for; 

your case shall be attended to; 

a good horse to ride on; 

a place for pitching one's tent in; 

people worth speaking with; 

a matter often inquired into, but never disposed of. 

324. The prepositions do not form a ver} r large class of 
words ; in English they number considerably less than a hun- 
dred. 

The simple prepositions are : 

at, after, against, but, by, down, ere, for, from, in, of, off, 
over, on (a'), since, through, till, to, under, up, with. 

325. Derivative and compound prepositions are made : 

a. From other prepositional or adverbial elements : thus, 

into, unto, until, onto, upon, underneath, before, behind, 
beyond, above, about, toward, within, without, throughout. 

b. From nouns and adjectives : thus, 

among or amongst, across, beside or besides, 
amid or amidst, along, athwart, aslant, 
around, below, between or betwixt, despite. 

The adverbial adjectives nigh, near, next, like, in some of their uses come 
very near to a prepositional value (compare 366) : thus, 

she sat near the lake; quit yourselves like men. 



146 PREPOSITIONS. [325- 

C. From verbs : thus, 

save or saving, during, notwithstanding, touching, 
concerning, respecting, except or excepting, past. 

Ago (for earlier agone : that is, 'gone by') may also be regarded as a prepo- 
sition, always following its object : thus, 

he left an hour ago; 

or, better, as an adverb of time, qualified by the adverbial objective (390) 
an hour etc. , as in an hour sooner, an hour hence. 

326. There are many phrases, combinations of independent 
words, which are used in a way so like that in which prepo- 
sitions are used that they are conveniently and properly enough 
treated as equivalents of prepositions, or * preposition-phrases. 
Such are, for example, 

out of, from out, as to, as for, on this (or that etc.) side, 
along side, in front of, by way of, because of, for the sake of, 
in stead or in lieu of, in respect or regard to, according to; 

and not a few others. 



PARSING OF PREPOSITIONS. 

Neither the kind nor the form of a proposition calls for definition in parsing 
the word. It needs only to be pointed out what word or phrase is the object 
of the preposition, to what it is joined by the latter, and for what purpose - 
as was sufficiently illustrated in the exercises on Chapter V. Further examples 
are deferred until the classification of prepositional phrases is taken up, in 
Chapter XIII. 



327] CONJUNCTIONS. 147 



CHAPTER XI. 
CONJUNCTIONS. 

327. A conjunction (47 - 8), like a preposition, is a con- 
nective, a word that joins other words together, at the same 
time showing something as to their relation to one another. 

But a conjunction is a very different kind of connective 
from a preposition. 

In the first place, its usual and principal office is to con- 
nect two sentences together : thus, 

he spoke and they listened; 

they listened, but they could not hear; 

we piped while they danced; 

they went because they could not help it; 

he will pay if you wish it; 

I see that the way is hard; 

he knows whether he did it. 

If a preposition is used to join a sentence instead of a word to another, it is 
no longer a preposition, but becomes a conjunction (331) ; thus, 

you may wait until he comes; 

he will come before you have waited long. 

In the second place, though some of the conjunctions - 
especially and, or, but — often connect words in the same 
sentence, these words are always co-ordinate (the word 
means ' of equal order or rank ') : that is to say, they are 
used alike in the sentence, or have the same construc- 
tion. 

They may be, for example, two or more subjects or objects of 
the same verb : thus, 

he and I ran a race; I saw the cat and the dog; 



148 CONJUNCTIONS. [327- 

or adjectives or adverbs qualifying the same word : thus, 

an honest but mistaken man; neither well nor truly said; 
or prepositions governing the same word : thus, 

by and with our consent; either for or against me. 

Even two verbs having the same subject are also often con- 
nected by these conjunctions : as, 

he came and saw it; we heard but refused the request. 

In such a case the question arises whether we shall or shall not consider the 
sentences as two, the second having its subject omitted : see 487. 

328. The most important division of the conjunctions, 
according to their use, is that into co-ordinating and sub- 
ordinating conjunctions. 

This distinction cannot be fully understood except in connection with the 
subject of compound and complex sentences, which will be treated later, in the 
Syntax (Chapter XIV.). 

329. Co-ordinating conjunctions are those that join 
together sentences of equal order or rank. 

The commonest conjunctions of this class are 

and, or, but, for. 

And simply couples or joins on one sentence to another, and 

hence is called copulative* Others of similar force are 

also, likewise, eke, too, besides, moreover. 

Or implies an alternative, and is best so called : others like 

it are 

either, else, neither, nor. 

Either and or, and their negatives neither and nor, are called 
correlative (that is, ' having a mutual relation '), because they 
occur generally together, introducing the two alternatives, and 
the former of them is always followed by the latter : thus, 

either he must leave, or I shall go; 
neither this man sinned, nor his parents. 

There are also correlative copulative conjunctions : thus, both 
. . . and; at once (or alike) . . . and; not only ... but also; as 
well ... as; what . . . what. 



330] CLASSIFICATION OF CONJUNCTIONS. 149 

But usually implies something opposed or adverse to what has 
been said, and hence is called adversative : thus, 

you thought him honest, but he is not. 
Others like it are 

yet, however, still, only, nevertheless, notwithstanding. 

For points out a reason or cause, and is called causal ; and 

with it may be put 

therefore, then, hence, 

which connect an inference or conclusion with the reason for it. 

330. Subordinating conjunctions are. those which join 
a subordinate or dependent clause to that on which it de- 
pends. 

A dependent clause is one which forms a part or member of 
another clause, having the value of. a noun, or an adjective, or 
an adverb, in that other : see 423. 

Some of the commonest conjunctions and conjunction-phrases 
of this class are : 

a. Conjunctions of place and time : thus, 

where, whence, when, as, while (or whilst), 

until, before, ere, since, after, as soon as, as long as. 

Within a short time, British speakers and authors have begun to use words 
like directly and immediately as conjunctions of time : saying, for example, 

directly he got in, the train started, 
for 

as soon as he got in etc. 
This ungraceful innovation is thus far almost unknown in American use. 

b. Conjunctions of cause and condition : thus, 

because, since, whereas, for that; 
if, unless, without, except, provided ; 
though, although, albeit, notwithstanding. 

C. Conjunctions of end or purpose : thus, 
that, so that, in order that, lest. 
d. Conjunctions of comparison : thus, 

as, than. 



150 CONJUNCTIONS. [330 * 

After the comparative conjunctions, the clause is especially often shortened, 
sometimes to a single word (compare 494) : for example, 

•he is a better man than I [am] ; 

thou shalt love thy neighbor as [thou lovest] thyself. 

And with the relative who, than is treated as if it were a preposition, requiring 
an objective case : thus, 

than whom there is none better. 

e. That (apart from its use in the sense of ' in order that ' : 
thus, he died that we might live) has a peculiar value in intro- 
ducing a substantive clause : that is, a clause used with the value 
of a noun (422) : for example, as subject noun, 

that he was here is not true ; 
as object noun, 

I did not say that he was here ; 

as object of a preposition, 

I should try, except that I fear to fail. 

We may best call it, then, the substantive conjunction. 

331. Only a few simple words are used solely as conjunc- 
tions : such are 

and, eke, or, nor, lest, than. 

Many conjunctions are also adverbs ; and it often is not possi- 
ble to draw a distinct line between the use of a word as, adverb / 
and as conjunction. As above pointed out (310), the same word 
is an adverb when it distinctly qualifies the verb in a clause, and 
a conjunction when it qualifies rather the whole clause, deter- 
mining its relation to another. 

For example, we have adverbial uses in 

he finished his work, and then went away; 

he might have stayed, but he chose otherwise; 

when we left, he was yet living. 

And we have conjunctional uses in 

have you finished? then go away; 

he was angry, otherwise he would have stayed; 

he is very ill, yet he may live a week. 

The words 

when, where, whither, whence, why, how, 



331] CONJUNCTIONS. 151 

which are adverbs when used interrogatively, are conjunctions 
when used relatively (185), since their relative force (175) di- 
rectly joins on the clause which contains them to an antecedent 
word or clause. 

Many prepositions are also used as conjunctions : especially, by the omission 
of the substantive conjunction ihat which formerly followed them (and is some- 
times still used) : thus, 

he had left before I arrived ; 
or 

he had left before that I arrived. 

On the other hand, in old-style English, that is superfluously inserted after 
many conjunctions : for example, 

when that the poor have cried ; 

if that my husband now were but returned ! 

That as conjunction, as well as that as relative pronoun (184), is often 
omitted : see 436. 



PAESING OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

Besides naming a conjunction or conjunction-phrase as such, we need only to 
point out whether it is co-ordinating or subordinating, and what are the words 
or the sentences which it connects. But this can be only imperfectly done until 
the subject of compound and complex sentences has been taken up (Chapter 
XIV . ) ; and any special exercises on conjunctions had better be omitted until 
then. 



152 INTERJECTIONS. [332 



CHAPTER XII. 

INTERJECTIONS. 

332. As we saw in the second chapter (50-1), an in- 
terjection is not in the proper sense a " part of speech," 
since it does not combine with other " parts " to form that 
whole which we call a sentence. It is a direct intimation 
of feeling or of will, made expressive chiefly by the tone, 
the inflection of voice, with which it is uttered. 

Thus, for example, ah! expresses a number of different feel- 
ings — such as joy, pain, surprise, disgust — according to the 
way in which it is uttered. 

333. The interjections are not real natural outbursts of feeling, like a 
scream, a groan, a sigh, though they come nearer to this character than any- 
thing else in language. They are, like all our other words, means of communi- 
cation ; they are utterances by which we seek to signify to others that we are 
moved by such and such feelings. Hence, each language has its own set of in- 
terjections, more or less different from those of other languages. 

334. Some of the ordinary English interjections are : 

a. Of joy, glad surprise, pleasant emotion : 

oh! ah! ha! hey! hurrah! huzza! 

b. Of painful feeling or suffering : 

oh! ah! alas! well-a-day! dear me! heigh-ho! 
C. Of disapproval or contempt : 

poh! fie! faugh! fudge! whew! 

d. Of calling attention : 

ho! hola! hollo! hem! lo! 

e. Of quieting or repressing : 

hist! hush! tut! mum! 

f. Words made in imitation of natural sounds are a kind of 
interjection : thus, 

pop! bang! bow-wow! ding-dong! rub-a-dub! 



336] INTERJECTIONS. 153 

335. The interjections shade off into ordinary words, as 
used in an exclamatory or interjectional way. 

The sentence is the means of expression of calm assertion, of reasoning, of 
explanation, of description. When the speaker is moved with strong feeling, 
the sentence-form of expression is wont to be more or less abandoned, and only 
the prominent words to be uttered, with tone aud gesture that sufficiently ex- 
plain them : see Chapter XVII. 

Some of our ordinary words, real parts of speech, are so much 
used in this exclamatory way that they are almost to he called 
interjections. Such are 

how, why, what, well, indeed, hail, behold. 

Words and phrases of asseveration, from indeed and I declare 
up to the strongest oaths, are of the nature of interjections. 

Some words which now appear only as interjections were once 
ordinary parts of speech; hut their character as such has be- 
come corrupted and disguised : thus, 

zounds (' by God's wounds ') ; 
egad ('by God'); 

alas ( ah lasso, ' O [me] miserable ') ; 
de*r (Odieu, <0 God'). 

336. The interjections are sometimes combined with other 
words in exclamatory phrases : thus, 

ah me! alas the day! horror! what ho! 

for a calm, a thankful heart! that it were so! 

The use of in address with the vocative (141), the interjec- 
tional case of the noun, is very common : for example, 

O thou that bringest good tidings! give ear, ye heavens! 
justice, royal duke! to your tents, Israel! 



PARSING OF INTERJECTIONS. 

An interjection needs only to be defined as such, along with a statement of 
the purpose for which it is used — the feeling which it expresses, the natural 
sound which it imitates, and so on. 



154 THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. [337- 



CHAPTER XIII. 
SYNTAX: THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 

337. Syntax treats of the combinations of words for use 
in the expression of our thoughts. 

Not a few of the leading principles and rules of syntax have been already- 
stated and illustrated ; we have here to take them up in a more connected and 
systematic way, repeating many things that have been said before, and adding 
others that are new. 

338. The combinations of words which we make in 
expressing ourselves are called sentences ; and these sen- 
tences are of three kinds : 

1. Assertions or statements; 

2. Questions; 

3. Commands (demands, wishes). 

339. The usual sentence is the assertion or statement ; 
or (as we have called it before : see 22) the assertive sen- 
tence. 

This is the regular form of our expression ; it is the model, as 
it were, of which the other two are variations. For this reason 
we shall for the present consider it alone, then afterward (Chap- 
ter XYI.) taking up the other two kinds of sentences, and also 
(Chapter XVII.) the incomplete or abbreviated sentence, in which 
one or another part, usually expressed, is wanting. 

340. No sentence can be made except by means of a 
verb, since the verb is the only part of speech that asserts, 
or declares, or predicates. 

341. All that is absolutely necessary besides a verb to 
make a complete assertion, or a full sentence, is the name 
of some person or thing about which the assertion is made. 



345] SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 155 

This name must be either a noun (which is the part of 
speech that ( names '), or a pronoun, the usual substitute of 
a noun, or some other part of speech used substantively, 
or with the value of a noun (143 etc.). 

342. As this name is the subject of the statement, or 
that about which the statement is made, it is called in 
grammar the subject of the sentence; and the verb is 
called the predicate : that is, ' the thing stated or asserted.' 

343. As the verb is the essential part of every sentence, 
or the part that makes the assertion, the subject of the sen- 
tence is also called the subject (or subject-nominative) of 
the verb. And every verb, since it implies a statement, 
must have along with it its subject, or the word showing 
what the statement is about. 

344. Examples of the simplest sentence, composed only 
of a verb and its subject, are 

God rules; men obey; stones fall; 

smoke rises; John reads; children spell; 

I speak; you hear; he obeys. 

Others have been given in the second chapter and the exercises upon it. 

As we shall see more plainly hereafter, however long a sen- 
tence may become, it can still be divided into the same two 
parts : the subject being the full definition or description of the 
person or thing about which the statement is made, and the 
predicate being the complete assertion made about it (compare 
28). 

345. In all those words — namely, most of the pro- 
nouns — which have, besides the genitive or possessive, a 
double case-form (72), the nominative or subjective case is 
alone used as the subject of a statement : thus, 

I give, not me give; he loved, not him loved; 

they went, not them went; who spoke, not whom spoke. 



156 THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. [346- 

346. Again, so far as the verb has different forms of 
person and number, the form used is of the same person 
and number with the subject. — being, therefore, always in 
the third person if its subject is a noun (141) : thus, 

I give, not 1 gives; thou goest, not thou go or goes; 

he runs, not he run; the man runs, not the man runnest; 

we are, not we am or is ; the men were, not the men was. 

This (as we have seen before, 60) is also expressed by saying that the verb 
agrees with its subject in number and person ; or that the subject governs 
the verb in number and person — that is, requires the verb to be of a certain 
character in these respects : the subject being given, the verb is compelled to 
correspond with it in number and person. 

347. We have, then, these first rules of syntax, which 
apply to all sentences, but which are the only ones that 
apply to a bare sentence, a sentence composed of a verb 
and its subject and nothing more : 

I. A sentence is composed of subject and predicate: the 
subject, a noun (or a word or words having the value of a 
noun), names that of which something is asserted or de- 
clared ; the predicate, a verb, expresses that which is asserted 
or declared of the subject. 

II. The subject of the sentence (also called the subject- 
nominative of the verb) is in the nominative case. 

III. The verb agrees in person and number with its sub- 
ject. 

348. A few special cases under these rules need to be noticed 
here : 

a. A verb sometimes has for its subject the pronoun it 
(163 b), not as standing for any real actor, but as helping to 
signify that a certain condition or .action exists or is going on. 

Thus, 

it rains, it thunders, it is dark, it strikes seven. 

These are called impersonal expressions : see 307. 

b. A verb is often used in the plural along with a collective 



351] AGREEMENT OF VERB AND SUBJECT. 157 

noun (114) in the singular, when we have in mind the separate 
individuals composing the collection : thus, 

the happy pair go hand in hand; the jury give their verdict; 
the crowd throng the streets; a half of them are gone. 

C. Two or more words connected by and, even if singular, 
are so combined into one that, as subject, they regularly take a 
plural verb (compare 488) : thus, 

my father and mother are here; 
anger and spite were in his face. 

[See Exercise XIII., at the end of the chapter.] 

349. But it is comparatively seldom that a sentence is made 
up of a bare noun or pronoun and a bare verb ; and we have 
next to look and see how this simple and necessary framework 
is extended and filled out, so as to let us express more, or 
express things more definitely, in a single sentence. 

PREDICATE NOUN AND ADJECTIVE. 

350. Many verbs are not in themselves complete as 
predicates ; we almost never put them alone along with a 
subject ; when so put, they do not make a sentence that 
seems to have a full meaning ; we wait for something more 
to be added. 

351. One class of these verbs is made up of such as call 
for something more to be added relating to the subject, and 
further describing or qualifying it. For example, 

I am .... ; we were . . . . ; 

they seem . . . . ; the man looked 

We may complete such statements by adding a noun 
or an adjective : thus, 

I am poor; we were brothers; 

they seem hungry; the man looked tired. 



158 THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. [352- 

352. A word thus used is called a predicate noun or a 
predicate adjective ; or, the noun or adjective is said to 
stand in the predicate, or to be used predicatively. 

This is because it in a manner completes the predication or 
assertion made by the verb ; it qualifies the subject, being made 
part of the assertion respecting the latter ; it does so by the help 
of the verb, which brings it into connection with the subject. 

353. The number of verbs thus taking a predicate adjective 
or noun is not a very large one. They are sometimes called 
verbs of incomplete predication. Such are : 

a. The verb be : thus, 

I am ill; he was angry; they will be tired; 

you are a scholar; she was the heroine; they have been soldiers. 

This is by far the commonest of the whole class. The verb be, in all its 
various forms, has come to stand as a mere connective of assertion between a 
subject and some word or words describing that subject, and so to have no 
meaning of its own except that of signifying the assertion. It simply couples 
together two words in the relation of a subject and a predicate. It is there- 
fore commonly called the copula (that is, 'coupler'). 

Indeed, every verb admits of being taken apart, or analyzed, into some form 
of this copula be, which expresses the act of assertion, and a predicate noun 
or adjective (especially the verbal adjective, the present participle), expressing 
the condition or quality or action predicated. Thus, 

I sfand 
is nearly I am erect, or, still more nearly, 

I am standing ; 

again, 

. we gave, they beg, 

are equivalent to 

we were givers, or we were giving ; 
they are beggars, or they are begging ; 

and in a similar way we form the " progressive " verb-phrases (281) by the side 
of all the simple tenses and the simpler phrases : thus, 

we give, and we are giving ; 

we shall give, and we shall be giving ; 

we may have given, and we may have been giving; 

and so on. 

b. Become, with its near equivaleuts grow, get, turn, and 
the like : thus, 

I became ill ; his face grew black. 



354] PREDICATE NOUN AND ADJECTIVE. 159 

C. Remain, continue, stay, and the like : thus, 

John remained silent; he continues grateful. 

d. Seem, appear, look, and the like : thus, 

she seems a goddess; it looks terrible. 

e. Sound, smell, feel, and the like : thus, 

we feel outraged ; it smells sweet. 

f. Verbs of condition and motion, like stand, sit, go, move, 
and so on : thus, 

the door stands open ; they sat mute ; 

he will go mad ; my blood runs cold. 

g. The passives of verbs which take an objective predicate 
(below, 369) : thus, 

he was made angry; they are called cannibals. 

354. The predicate use of the adjective shades off into an adverbial con- 
struction, and the two are not always to be readily or clearly distinguished 
from each other. Their distinction depends on the degree to which the added 
word is intended to quality the subject on the one hand, or the action of the 
verb itself on the other. Thus, we may say, 

we feel warm, it is buried deep, 

when we mean 'feel ourselves to be warm,' 'buried so as to be deep'; or we 

may say 

we feel warmly, it is buried deeply, 

when we mean that the feeling is a warm one, that the burying was a deep one. 

And in 

he looks well, 

we understand well to be predicate adjective when the sense is 'he looks in 

good health, he appears as if he were well ' ; but adverb if the sense is 'he is 

good-looking.' But in 

he sits next, 

next may be understood in either way without any important difference. 

Again, we say of a fruit, 

it looks ripe, it feels ripe, it smells ripe, it tastes ripe ; 

because the meaning is that in these various ways we judge it actually to be 
ripe. And well-established usage allows us to say 

the girl looks pretty; the rose smells sweet; the wine tastes sour; 

although in each case the adverb, prettily and so on, would in strict theory be 
better. 



160 THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. [355- 

355. With the verbs of condition and motion (353 f ), espe- 
cially, the qualifying force of the predicate adjective is very often 
really distributed between the subject and the verb. Thus, in 

he stands firm, 
we mean not only that he is firm in his standing, but also that 
the standing -itself is firm. So also in 

the sun shines bright; the messenger comes running; 

the tone rings clear and full. 

An adjective thus used may be distinguished as an adverbial 

PREDICATE. 

The predicate adjective, especially the adverbial predicate, shades off into the 
appositive adjective (376). 

Yet another kind of predicate adjective or noun, an objective or factitive pred- 
icate, will be described farther on (369). 

356. A word in the predicate (except a predicate possessive, 
388) ought, since it qualifies the subject, to be in the same case 
with it ; and this rule is generally observed in English — that 
is to say, in the pronouns, the only words which distinguish 
nominative and objective. Thus, we say 

it is I ; it was we; if it were she; 

and so on. Careless and inaccurate speakers, however, often use 

such expressions as 

it is them; it was us; if it were her; 

and in the case of 

it is me, 

the practice has become so common that it is even regarded as 
good English by respectable authorities. 

357. We have, then, the definition and rule : 

IV. A predicate adjective or noun is one which is brought 
by a verb into relation with its subject, as qualifying or de- 
scribing the subject. 

V. A predicate (pronoun) agrees regularly in case with the 
subject which it qualifies. 

[See Exercise XIV., at the end of the chapter.] 



353] OBJECT OF THE VERB. . 161 

OBJECT OF THE VERB. 

358. A verv much larger class of verbs than those 
spoken of above are seldom used alone with a subject to 
form a sentence, on account of being incomplete in another 
way — namely, as they call for the addition of a word 
to express some person or thing on which the action they 
signify is exerted. 

Thus, for example, 
I fold . . . ; she tells . . . ; the man clutches . . . ; 

where we expect an addition telling what is folded, or told, or 

clutched, and the sense is made complete in some such way as 

this : 

I fold the paper; % she tells a story; 

the man clutches the rope. 

Such an added word is always a name of something, a noun 
(or else a pronoun or other equivalent of a noun) ; and it is 
called the object of the verb (71), because it signifies that at 
which the action of the verb is directed, that which receives or 
endures or suffers the effect of the action, of whatever kind it 
may be. 

The verb which takes such an object to complete its 
meaning is called a transitive verb (223), because its 
action, instead of being merely asserted of the subject, 
1 passes over ' and affects another noun, the object. 

359. When we use a pronoun in this way — thus, 

I strike him, they saw us — 

the case in which the object is put is the objective : indeed, 
this case is so named as being especially that belonging to 
the object of the verb. 

Hence, as we have already seen (74), we say that a transitive 
verb governs the objective case, or governs a noun in that case : 
that is, its object is compelled or required to be of that case. 



162 THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. [360- 

360. But verbs which can take an object in the way here 
described, and which are therefore ordinarily called transitive, 
may in English, almost without exception, be used without any 
expressed object, or intransitively. In that case, they signify 
simply the doing of the action, without taking any account of 
whom or what it is done to. For example : 

I love, he strikes, they see, you speak. 

361. On the other hand, there are verbs which do not prop- 
erly take after them such an object : thus, for example, 

sit, fall, run, lie. 

We may sit on something, fall from somewhere, run over some 
one, and so on ; but we do not sit any one or anything. Such 
verbs are called intransitives. 

They are also sometimes called neuter ; but this is a term belonging to the 
division into active, passive, and neater ; and in English we have no passive 
verbs, but only passive verb-phrases (297 etc.) : all our verbs are "active," 
and therefore no one of them needs to be defined as such. 

362. But even some intransitive verbs take an object in 
certain peculiar constructions. 

Thus : 

a. An object expressing in noun-form the action, or a variety 
of the action, signified by the verb itself : as, 

he has lived a long life; I slept a deep sleep; 

they ran their race; you will dance a jig; 

let us die the death of the righteous. 

This is called a cognate object: that is, one * allied ! or 
' related ' in meaning to the verb itself. 

b. An object along with a " factitive predicate," the verb 
being taken in the sense (see below, 370) of producing a cer- 
tain effect by the action which it expresses : as, 

he walked himself weary; they yawned their jaws out of joint. 

C. An indefinite or impersonal object it (163 b), in such phrases as 

they frolic it along; she coquettes it with every fellow she sees. 



366] DIRECT AND INDIRECT OBJECT. 163 

d. Occasionally, a reflexive (306) object : as, 
she went and sat her down over against him; stand thee close, then. 

As for certain apparent objects which are not really so, see below, 390. 

363- The kind of object which we have thus far con- 
sidered is also called a direct object, because its relation 
to the "governing" verb is so close and immediate as 
not to admit the help of any auxiliary word, as a prepo- 
sition, to define it. 

364. But some verbs take, along with such a direct 
object, another of a different character, in a relation which 
we more usually express by to or for : for example, 

he gave me the book; 

I made him a coat; 

they paid the man his wages; 

we forgive our friends their faults. 
In the first sentence, me points out to whom the action 
of giving the book was done; in the second, him shows for 
whom the action of making the coat was performed ; and 
so on. 

This appears clearly enough when we change the place of the words in ques- 
tion, putting them after the direct object. Then we are obliged to use preposi- 
tions, saying 

he gave the book to me; I made a coat for him. 

365. Such a second object, then, is called an indirect 
object, because it represents what is less directly affected 
by the action of the verb, and because the same relation 
may be, and often is, expressed by prepositions — namely, 
by to, or, more rarely, by for. 

One common verb, ask, takes a second or indirect object in a relation usually 

expressed by of: thus, 

I asked him his name; 
but 

I asked a favor of him; 

and a like construction is now and then met with, irregularly, in the case of 
other verbs. 

366. The indirect object, like the direct, is put in the 
objective case. But the objective in this use is to be 



164 THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. [366- 

called the dative-objective, since it answers to the " da- 
tive " case of other languages, as the objective of the direct 
object answers to the " accusative " (compare 139-40). It 
is put, in the sentence, between the verb and the direct 
object. 

The adjectives nigh, near, next, and like, both in adjective and in adverbial 
use, may be and usually are followed by a dative-objective directly (without 
the connective to) : thus, 

he was near falling; she sits next me; 

a man like few others; he drives like Jehu. 

Although we may use to and for in expressing the relation of the indirect 
object, we must not make the mistake of supposing that a to or for is left out, 
and to be "understood" as expressed along with the object itself — any more 
than that of is left out with John's, because instead of it we may say of John. 
The dative is not, indeed, like the possessive, now distinguished by an ending 
of its own ; but it was so formerly. 

367. Some verbs, like pay and forgive, often take their in- 
direct object alone, as well as their direct : thus, either, with 
direct object, 

we paid the wages, he forgave the offence, 

or, with indirect, 

we paid the man, he forgave the offender. 

Either ohject, when thus used alone, is apt to seem to us a 
direct one ; and it is only when we come to put them together 
that we see their true relation. 

And not a few verbs which were formerly intransitive, taking an indirect or 
dative object, are now reckoned by us as only transitive (an example is follow). 

368. We may sum up as follows : 

VI. A transitive verb takes a direct object, expressing that 
-which is immediately affected by the action of the verb ; and 
sometimes also an indirect object, expressing that to or for 
which the action is performed. 

VII. The object of a verb, whether direct or indirect, is 
in therobjective case (the direct being an accusative-objective, 
the indirect a oa*tue-objective). 



369] OBJECTIVE OR FACTITIVE PREDICATE. 165 

OBJECTIVE OR FACTITIVE PREDICATE, 

369. We have seen above (350 etc.) that a predicate 
adjective or noun is one which, being added to a verb, 
forms part of the predication or assertion about the subject 
of the verb; one that is made, through the verb, to describe 
or qualify the subject. 

Now it is sometimes also the case that an adjective or 
noun is, through the verb, brought into a like relation to 
the direct object, as qualifying that object. 

Thus, in 

he made the stick straight, 

the adjective straight qualifies the object stick, by becoming a 
kind of addition to the verb made, defining the nature of the 
action exerted on stick. "We may say instead 

he straightened the stick. 

Here the adjective is, as it were, taken into the verb, and be- 
comes a part of the assertion made by the verb alone ; straight- 
ened can be taken apart into made straight with reference to the 
object, just as it may be taken apart into is straightening with 
reference to the subject. 

Then, if we turn the construction into a "passive " one (298), 
making the former object stick the subject, straight becomes an 
ordinary predicate adjective qualifying it : thus, 

the stick was made straight. 

Other examples are 

we called him a coward; they chose her queen; 
he must keep the water hot; she carries her head high; 
I left them waiting; you see him running. 

To these the corresponding passives, with the noun or adjective turned into 
an ordinary predicate, are 

he was called by us a coward; she was chosen queen ; 
the water must be kept hot ; her head was carried high ; 

they were left waiting; he is seen running. 



166 THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. [369- 

Such examples as you see him running show that the construction shades off 
into one in which the adjective is rather to "be regarded as appositive (376). 

370. An object along with a predicate word qualifying it is 
taken especially often by a verb that is used in a factitive sense : 
that is, in the sense of ' making ' or causing or bringing about 
something by means of the action which the verb signifies. 

Thus, taking sing in the usual sense, we should never speak 
of " singing a throat "; but we may say, 

I sang my throat hoarse, 

meaning ' I made my throat hoarse by singing.' And, in like 

manner, 

she wrings the clothes dry; 

the lightning struck him dead; 

they planed the board smooth; 

where wrings dry means ' makes dry by wringing/ and so on. 

Even intransitive verbs are thus used factitively (362 b), with 
object and qualifying predicate : thus, 

he danced his feet tired; 
they wept their eyes blind. 
A verb, whether transitive or intransitive, is especially often 
used factitively when it is also used reflexively (306) : thus, 
they sang themselves hoarse; 
he walked himself weary. 

371. An adjective or noun thus made by a verb to qual- 
ify its object is called an objective predicate, or a facti- 
tive predicate, adjective or noun. 

And we have the rule : 

VIII, An adjective or a noun is called objective or factitive 
predicate when it is brought by the verb into relation with 
the direct object, as qualifying or describing that object. 

In languages which distinguish the objective case throughout from the sub- 
jective or nominative by a different form, this predicate would of course be in 
the objective, as the ordinary predicate in the nominative ; but an instance of 
such ' ' agreement " cannot occur in English, except after an infinitive : see 451. 

[See Exercise XV., at the end of the chapter.] 



374] ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVE. 167 

ATTRIBUTIVE AND APPOSITIVE ADJECTIVE AND NOUN. 

372. We have thus far seen that a noun may come to 
be qualified or described by an adjective or a noun used 
predicatively : that is, in the way of an assertion that such 
a quality or state or character or office, or the like, belongs 
to it — a relation which needs a word of assertion, a verb, 
to bring it about. 

373. But an adjective also, and much oftener, qualifies 
a noun more directly, being simply added to the noun to 
describe it ; the quality and so on is not asserted, but only 
mentioned, as belonging to that which the noun expresses. 

Thus, in 

this man is old, 

we make the age the thing which we assert ; but in 

this old man, 

we make it part of the description of the person, about whom 

we may then go on to make an assertion : as, 

this old man has white hair; 

where we use another adjective to describe also the object hair. 

374. An adjective thus used to describe a noun without 
being part of the assertion or predication made about it is 
called an attribute, or an attributive adjective, or is said 
to be used attributively {attribute means simply ' ascribed ' 
or c attached '). 

While a predicative adjective qualifies only the subject 

or the direct object of a verb, an attributive adjective may 

qualify a noun in any situation whatever. It is generally 

put before the noun. For example : 

my dear friend's generous heart led him to give the tired 

traveller a delightful rest, last week, in the best room of 

his elegant house. 

For the logical (not grammatical) distinction between the purely descriptive 
and the restrictive or limiting, use of the attributive adjective, see 191. 



168 THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. [375- 

375. A noun is, much less often, used to describe an- 
other noun in a way somewhat similar to this. 

Thus, in 

my friend the hunter carries his weapon, a rifle, on his 

shoulder, 

we have the nouns friend and weapon limited or described by 
the addition of hunter and rifle. There are implied in the sen- 
tence the two assertions that 

my friend is a hunter, and his weapon is a rifle; • 

but they are only implied, not actually made. 

A noun thus used is called appositive, or is said to be in 
apposition w T ith the other noun. 

This means * in position by the side of/ or ' set alongside ' ; 
because the appositive noun seems less closely connected with 
the noun which it describes, less dependent on it, than the at- 
tributive adjective \ it is, rather, an independent word, added to 
the other for the purpose of further describing the same thing. 

376. But an adjective is also often joined to a noun in 
a looser and more indirect way, so much like that of the 
appositive noun that it is also to be called an appositive 

ADJECTIVE. 
Examples are 

for these reasons, avowed and secret; 
all poetry, ancient or modern; 

young, handsome, and clever, the page was the darling 
of the house; 

where the shade of meaning is a little different from what it 
would be in 

for these avowed and secret reasons; 

all ancient or modern poetry; 

the young, handsome, and clever page. 
We have, namely, in the appositive adjective a more distinct suggestion of an 



378] APPOSITIVE ADJECTIVE. 169 

added clause, of which the adjective would be the predicate — as if, for example, 

we said ♦ 

since he was young, handsome, and clever, the page was etc. 

Yet, as we have seen already (175), the attributive adjective also may always 
be turned into the predicate of a descriptive clause. And it is quite impossible 
to draw a distinct line between the attributive and the appositive use of the ad- 
jective. If we make the description at all complicated by adding modifiers to 
the adjective, we may not put the adjective in the usual place of an attribute, 
close before the noun, but must separate it, like an appositive, from the noun. 

Thus, we say 

his ruddy countenance; the loveliest vale; 

but 

his countenance, ruddy with the hue of youth ; 

a vale, loveliest of all vales on earth; 
or 

ruddy with the hue of youth, his countenance was pleasant to look upon ; 

and so on. 

Hence, as the participles have modifiers added to them much more freely than 
ordinary adjectives, the participles are especially used in appositive construc- 
tion (see below, 457). 

A pronoun, which almost never takes an attributive adjective 
before it, like a noun, has an appositive adjective or noun added 
to it just as freely as a noun : thus, 

we, poor in friends, sought their love; 

they ran off laughing; 

tired and hungry, he hastened home; 

you Frenchmen are livelier than we English. 

377. On the other hand, a noun is now and then used quite in the manner 
of an attributive adjective : thus, 

my hunter friend, her soldier cousin, the drummer boy. 

We may properly call such a noun attributive ; or we may say that it is used 
with the value of an attributive adjective. Compound nouns (119 b) some- 
times grow out of this combination. 

378. We have, then, the definitions : 

IX. An adjective qualifying a noun directly (not through a 
verb) is called attributive — or, if more loosely connected with 
the noun, it is called appositive* 

X. A noun added to another noun, by way of further de- 
scription of the same object, is said to be in apposition with 
that noun. 

That an appositive adjective or noun also qualifies a pronoun 
has "been explained ahove. 



170 THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. [379- 

379. In languages which inflect their adjectives, and inflect their nouns 
more fully, attributive and appositive word* are regularly made to agree in case, 
or in number and case, with the nouns (or pronouns) which they qualify or 
describe. But no such agreement is possible with the English adjective, be- 
cause it is wholly uninflected (with the exception of this and these, that and 
those: see 76) ; and it is only imperfectly made in the possessive case of the 
appositive noun. We are allowed to say, indeed, 

the rifle is my friend's, the hunter's; 

but the expression seems awkward to us, and we prefer to say the same thing in 

some other way : as, 

it belongs to my friend, the hunter. 

Or, we put the sign of the possessive case only on the last noun (see 138) : thus, 

my friend the hunter's rifle. 

It is useless, then, to add any rule about agreement. 

[See Exercise XVI., at the end of the chapter.] 
ADVERB. 

380. As the adjective is the usual qualifier of the noun, 
so the adverb is the usual qualifier of the other member of 
the simple sentence, the verb. 

Adverbs qualify verbs in all the variety of meaning that be- 
longs to them, but without any difference of relation (like that 
of the predicative and attributive relation in the adjective) 
which is of importance enough to be distinguished and defined. 

381. Adverbs (as we have already seen, 41-2,308-9) 
qualify also adjectives, and sometimes other adverbs. 

There are even cases in which an adverb qualifies a preposi- 
tion : thus, 

a result far beyond his hopes; 

he jumped clear over the wall; 
a nail driven deep into the wood. 

Such cases shade off into those in which the qualifying word is no proper 
adverb, but an adjective belonging to the noun, to which the prepositional 
phrase is added. 

382. An adverb is quite often used with the value of a pred- 
icate adjective : for example, 

the sun is down, the moon is up, and the stars are all out; 
he was there, but you were away. 



384] ADVERB. 171 

And the adverb so is much used as substitute for adjectives as well as other 
parts of speech, to avoid repetition : see 493. For example, 
his step was light, for his heart was so. 

Less often, as an appositive adjective : thus, 

ask at the house next above; my stay there will be short; 

the wall within and that without. 

Sometimes (and less properly), even as an attributive adjec- 
tive : thus, 

the above passage; the then ruler; 

my sometime friend; his almost impudence of manner. 

As to the use of an adverb with the value of a noun, as object of a preposi- 
tion, see 322. 

383. We have, then, the rules : 

XI. An adverb qualifies a verb, an adjective, or another 
adverb. 

XII. An adverb is sometimes used with the value of an 
adjective, especially of a predicate adjective. 

[See Exercise XVII., at the end of the chapter.] 
GENITIVE OR POSSESSIVE CASE OF NOUNS. 

384. We have seen (68 etc.) that English nouns and 
pronouns have an inflectional form which is called their 
genitive or possessive case : thus, 

John's from John; man's from man; 

men's from men; his from he; 

their or theirs from they; 

and that the ease is usually called " possessive " because it 
is especially used, in connection with another noun, to point 
out the possessor of whatever that noun signifies, the per- 
son or thing to which it belongs. 

For example, if a book has John for its owner, we call it 
John's book; a crown belonging to the king is the king's crown; 
and, in' a more figurative way, the doings that belong to a 
certain day are called that day's doings. If a man has debts, 



172 THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. [384- 

we call them his debts; the act performed by him is his act; 
the faults he has committed are his faults; and so on. 

385. The possessive use of this case, its use as a genitive of possession or 
appurtenance (taking these words in a somewhat wide and loose sense), is by- 
far the most common of all in English ; but there are two or three others which 
call for notice. 

a. If the qualified noun signifies some action or condition of which, if it 
were expressed by a verb, the noun in the genitive would be the subject, the 
case is called a subjective genitive. 
Thus, in 

a mother's love, Troy's fall, the bugle's sound, 

Caesar's passage of the Rubicon, 
is implied that 

the mother loves, Troy has fallen, the bugle sounds, 

Csesar passed the Rubicon. 

b. If, on the other hand, the genitive would be the object of the action 
expressed by the other noun in verb-form, we call it an objective genitive. 
Thus, in 

earth's creator, sin's rebuke, his murder, 

it is implied that some one 

created earth, rebuked sin, murdered him. 

The objective genitive is much less common in English than the subjective. 
C. Once more, if the relation of the two nouns is logically that of apposition, 
and might also be so expressed, the case is called an appositive genitive : thus, 
Britain's isle; Numidia's spacious kingdom. 

The appositive genitive is now almost obsolete, but it occurs sometimes in 
poetry. 

386. In this way, a noun in its possessive case-form becomes 
a qualifying, or descriptive, or limiting addition to another noun, 
much as if it were an attributive adjective. Often we can put 
an adjective in place of the possessive, with little or no difference 
of meauing : thus, 

the king's crown, the day's doings, man's imperfections, 
may also be described as 
the royal crown, the daily doings, human imperfections. 

And we saw above (165, 205) that the possessive cases of 
the personal pronouns, especially, are not to be sharply distin- 
guished from adjectives. 



390] POSSESSIVE CASE. 173 

Though the English possessive is the genitive of older English and of the 
other related languages, it is peculiar in this respect : that whereas the genitive 
was used also with verbs and adjectives, or adverbially, our present possessive 
has only an adjective value, or is used adnominally — that is, as ' added to a 
noun,' or qualifying a noun. 

387. The possessive is said to be dependent on the 

noun which it describes, or to be governed by it : that is 
to say, the qualifying noun is as it were required or com- 
pelled by its relation to the other to take the possessive 
case-form. 

388. The possessive, with the noun on which it 'is 
dependent omitted, is also used in the various other con- 
structions of the adjective. 

Thus, as simple predicate : 

the book is John's; that crown is the king's; 

as objective predicate : 

I made the book his; 

in apposition : 

that crown, the king's, is set with jewels. 

Also, like an adjective used as a noun : thus, 

he and his are all well; John's book lies by Harry's. 

And the possessive, standing for 'such a one's property or belongings,' has 
come to be used with a preceding of, in the sense of ' belonging to such a one,* 
being put, like an appositive adjective, after the noun it qualifies : thus, 
this boy is a friend of mine; a servant of my brother's; 

that wife of his; 

that is, ( a friend belonging to me,' or ' one of my friends,' and so on. 

389. Thus we have the rule : 

XIII. The genitive or possessive case of a noun (or pronoun) 
is used to qualify or limit another noun, in the manner of an 
adjective. 

[See Exercise XVIII. , at the end of the chapter. ] 

ADVERBIAL OBJECTIVE CASE OF NOUNS. 

390. While, as we have just seen, our noun has a spe- 
cial case-form, the possessive, for adjective use, or as quali- 



174 THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. [390- 

fying a noun, it is also sometimes used, without any special 
case-form, in the manner of an adverb : that is to say, to 
qualify a verb, or an adjective, or even an adverb. 
Examples are as follows. With verbs : 

they walked a mile; he sat an hour; 

our friend died last night; it fell a long distance; 
it faces both ways. 
With adjectives : 

the river is a mile broad here; 
a sermon two hours long; 
a field three acres larger than another. 
With adverbs : 

he lives a long distance off; 

his house is a great deal better built; 

you should have come an hour sooner; 

it will be all the same a hundred years hence; 

they watched all night long. 

391. As we do not use the pronouns in this way, and as bur 
nouns never have different forms in the nominative and objec- 
tive, there is nothing in our language to show that the case thus 
used is really the objective. But this appears from the usage in 
older English and in other languages ; and we might also infer 
it from the fact that we often use a preposition to connect such a 
noun with the word which it qualifies : thus, 

he sat for an hour; it faces in both directions; 

larger by three acres. 

We may best call this use of the noun, therefore, an 
adverbial objective : that is, an objective case used with 
the value of an adverb. 

392. It is plain enough that, for example, in 

he walked a mile, 

the noun mile is in no proper sense the object of the verb walked, and that the 
verb is intransitive, as usual. 



395] ADVERBIAL OBJECTIVE. 175 

Yet, in such sentences, the adverbial objective sometimes so far assumes the 
character of an object that we turn it into the subject of a passive phrase (as we 
also sometimes do an indirect object : see 305) : thus, 

the mile was walked by him in twelve minutes. 

We may distinguish a word thus used by calling it an adverbial object. 

393. The adverbial objective is used especially to ex- 
press measure ; whether duration of time, or extent of dis- 
tance or space, or weight, or number, or age, or value, and 
the like. But it also expresses the time at which any- 
thing happened ; and, much more rarely, manner, as in 

have it your own way; he came full speed. 

Now and then, such an objective is added to a noun, with adjective value : 

thus, 

my dream last night; his adventures this day. 

394. We have, then, the rule : 

XIV. A noun expressing measure or time is sometimes used 
in the objective case with an adverbial value, or to qualify a 
verb, or adjective, or adverb. 

NOUN USED ABSOtUTElLY. 

395. There is yet another way in which a noun (or pro- 
noun) is sometimes made to describe or qualify something 
in a sentence, without having its relation to what it quali- 
fies denoted either by a case-form or by a connecting word. 
Thus, we say 

he lay down, his heart heavy with sorrow; 

he flies, wild terror in his look; 

they charged, sword in hand and visor down; 

they sit side by side; 

the mountain rose, height above height. 
A word thus used always has added to it an appositive adjec- 
tive (376), or a word or phrase of some kind (an adverb, a prep- 
ositional phrase, etc.) having the same value. And the two 
together answer the purpose of an accompanying trait or circum- 
stance added to the sentence (generally in the manner of an 



176 THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. [395- 

adverbial predicate : see 355). It is as if with or having, or a 
conjunction and the verb be, or something of the kind, which 
might have been used, were omitted : thus, 

he lay down, having a heart heavy etc. ; 
or he lay down, while his heart was heavy etc. ; 

he flies with wild terror in his look; 
or he flies, and wild terror is in his look. 

396. Such a word is said to be used absolutely, or to 
be in absolute construction, because it appears to stand as 
if ' cut loose ' from the sentence to which it belongs, the 
usual sign of relation to the words it qualifies being want- 
ing. 

The absolute construction is especially common with a participle qualifying 
the noun or pronoun (see below, 481) ; and the construction of the pronoun, 
which is very rare except with a participle, shows that the case used is regularly 
the nominative. 

397. Thus we have the rule : 

XV. A noun or pronoun, along with an appositive adjective 
or its equivalent, is sometimes used in the nominative case 
absolutely, in the manner of an adverb, to express some ac- 
companying circumstance or condition of. the action. 

[See Exercise XIX., at the end of the chapter.] 
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES. 

398. A preposition we have seen (44-6, 319) to be a 

connecting word by means of which a noun or pronoun is 
attached to another word, and made to limit or qualify it 
in some way which the preposition defines. 

And the noun or pronoun thus attached to another word by 
the preposition is called the object of the preposition, or is said 
to be governed by or dependent on it, and is put in the ob- 
jective case (320). 

399. The relations expressed by the prepositions are most 
like those expressed by the cases of the noun : thus, the rela- 
tion of the dative-objective (364-6) may always be expressed 



401] PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE. 177 

by the prepositions to or for, and that of the possessive by of 
(69). And some languages have other case-forms to express 
other relations, which we express by prepositions only : for ex- 
ample, by from (" ablative " case), and in (" locative" case), and 
with (" instrumental " case). 

400. The preposition and the word which it governs 
form together what is called a prepositional phrase. 
Such a phrase has a value in the sentence resembling that 
of the tw T o qualifying or limiting (43) parts of speech, the 
adjective and the adverb ; and it is to be estimated and 
named according to this value. 

401. If the w r ord to which the noun or pronoun is 
attached by the governing preposition is a noun, then the 
prepositional phrase has the value of an adjective, limiting 
or describing that noun. 

Often it may be (like the possessive case : 386) replaced by 
an adjective. Thus, for 

a house of wood, a man of truth, 

an emigrant from Ireland, a residence in the suburbs, 

an animal with two feet, 

we may say 

a wooden house, a truthful man, 

an Irish emigrant, a suburban residence, 

' a biped animal, 

and so on. 

The prepositional phrase, when it thus does the duty of 
an adjective in qualifying a noun, is called a prepositional 
adjective phrase, or, briefly, an adjective -phrase. 

Such a phrase may be used in all the various constructions 
in which an adjective is used : thus, as predicate, simple or 
objective : 

his house is in the city; he seemed out of humor; 

they danced themselves out of breath ; 
with a noun used absolutely : 

their minds at. ease, they departed. 



178 THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. [402- 

402. On the other hand, if the word to which the noun 
or pronoun is attached by the preposition is a ,verb or 
adjective or adverb, the value of the phrase is that of an 
adverb, and it is called an adverb-phrase. 

Here, also, we may often substitute for the adverb-phrase a 
simple adverb. Thus, for 

it burned to the ground, it mounted in the air, 

he spoke with anger, 

we may say 

it burned down, it mounted aloft, 

he spoke angrily. 

In fact, we may readily substitute, for almost any adverb an 
adverbial phrase, made up of preposition and noun, often with 
an adjective qualifying the noun : thus, 

there is in that place ; now is at this time ; 

hastily is with haste, or in a hasty manner; 
and so on. 

Many prepositional adverb-phrases have assumed such a stereotyped form 
that the words are hardly to be taken apart and parsed separately : thus, for 
example, 

on board, on fire, at hand, out of doors, on the whole, for the present ; 

and we saw above (315) that such phrases are sometimes made of a preposition 

and adjective : as, 

in vain, for long, at present ; 

and also (313 f ), that many adverbs are formed by fusing together the words of 

such phrases : as, 

abreast, afire, anew, abroad, besides, below, outdoors, beforehand, to-day, 

overboard. 

.403. We have already seen (322) that an adverb-phrase, like an adverb, 
sometimes takes the place of a noun as object of a preposition : for example, 

he went from here, he came from beyond the sea. 

404. We have, then, the following rules as to the use of 
prepositions : 

XVI. A preposition forms with its object either an adjective- 
phrase, qualifying a noun, or an adverb-jpHrase, qualifying 
a verb or adjective or adverb. 



406] SUMMARY OF SYNTACTICAL COMBINATIONS. 179 

XVII. The object of a preposition (if a noun or pronoun) is 
in the objective case. 

[See Exercise XX., at the end of the chapter.] 

405. We have now gone through with the parts of 
speech which combine with one another to form simple 
sentences, and have noticed the ways in which their com- 
binations are made. 

In these ways, the necessary elements of the sentence, 
the bare subject and predicate, are extended and filled up 
so as to express a thought in a more complete and detailed 
manner. 

406. We may sum up the processes of combination as 
follows (in these statements, for brevity's sake, we treat the 
pronoun as included along with the noun) : 

a. The original elements of the sentence are the subject- 
noun and the verb. 

b. The meaning of the verb may be filled out by an 
object-noun ; also, by a predicate adjective or noun (quali- 
fying either the subject or the object) ; or it may be modi- 
fied by an adverb. 

c. A noun in any construction in the sentence may be 
qualified by an adjective ; an adjective, by an adverb ; an 
adverb, by another adverb. 

d. A noun may be made to qualify another noun, adjec- 
tively, by being put in the possessive case, or by being 
joined to the other noun by a preposition ; it may be made 
to qualify a verb or adjective or adverb, adverbially, some- 
times in the objective case simply, but usually by means 
of a preposition. 

The "absolute" construction (395) of a noun with an appositive adjunct is 
here left unnoticed, as being less common, and apart from the ordinary pro- 
cesses of sentence-making. Also, the compounding of the various elements of 
a sentence by means of conjunctions (327), because this is a kind of abbrevia- 
tion, and will be treated of in a later place (Chapter XVII. ). 



180 THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. [407-410 

407. The words and phrases thus added to the subject- 
noun, or bare subject, and to the verb, or bare predicate, 
are, in either case, called its qualifiers, or modifiers, or 
adjuncts ; or, collectively, its complement.. And the bare 
subject or predicate along with its adjuncts or modifiers is 
called the complete subject or predicate. 

Some prefer to speak of the subject as " extended " or " enlarged," and of 
the predicate as " completed," by the additions made to each respectively ; and 
hence, to call the whole subject the " enlarged " or "extended" subject, and to 
call only the predicate " completed " or "complete"; but the distinction is 
not of consequence enough to be worth making. 

408. A simple sentence is one which is made up of one 
subject and of one predicate, however many words either 
of them may contain. 

409. In the ways described above, the simple sentence 
is, in theory, capable of being drawn out and filled up to 
any extent — made a whole page long, for instance. But, 
in practice, the length of a sentence is kept within limits 
by the fear of becoming awkward and lumbering, or even 
unintelligible. We put what we have to say, by preference, 
into a series of briefer sentences, separate statements. And 
the relation of these separate statements to one another we 
often determine by means of connecting words. 

410. The connecting words which determine the relation of 
sentences to one another are the conjunctions and the relative or 
conjunctive pronouns and pronominal adjectives. These bind 
together simple sentences more or less completely into a whole. 
Combinations of simple sentences made in this way are called 
compound and complex sentences : and we have next to take up 
and explain such sentences. 



chap, xiii.] EXERCISES. 181 

EXERCISES FOR PRACTICE 

IN THE CONSTRUCTIONS INVOLVED IN THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 

The simpler and more common constructions have in general had illustration 
enough, in the exercises to the preceding chapters. The exercises that follow 
are meant especially to show the rarer and more exceptional combinations 
which are treated of in this chapter. 

XIII. Impersonal, Collective, and Compound Subjects: 

§ 348. 
It dawns; will it never be day? 
How far is it, my lord, to Berkley now? 

Nearly one half of the inhabitants were assembled, and nearly 
the other half were engaged in a more peaceful duty. 
The army of the queen mean to besiege us. 
'T was Pentecost, the feast of gladness. 
Havoc and spoil and ruin are my gain. 
The world has all its eyes on Cato's son. 
But by the yellow Tiber was tumult and affright. 
And now the foe their covert quit. 
It was the deep mid-noon. 

The liberality and gratitude of the Normans were remarkable. 
My quarrel and the English queen's are one. 
A land where Nature, Freedom, Art smile hand in hand. 
The weary crew their vessel kept. 

XIV. Predicate Noun and Adjective; Adverbial Predi- 

cate: §§ 350-7. 

Hope springs eternal in the human breast. 
All looks yellow to the jaundiced eye. 
Man became a living soul. 

The time turns torment, when man turns a fool. 
The judicious are always a minority. 
With him lay dead both hope and pride. 
How come you thus estranged ? 
This act shows terrible and grim. 
Open fly the infernal doors. 
Men may live fools, but fools they cannot die. 
The harvest truly is plenteous, but the laborers are few. 
James was declared a mortal and bloody enemy, a tyrant, a mur- 
derer, and a usurper. 
The temptation had proved irresistible. 



182 . ^ THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. [chap. 

That Louis who was styled the father of his people. 

How remarkably heavy it is! it feels heavier than usual. 

Some are born great. 

A French king was brought prisoner to London. 

Now I have found him; and thou art he. 

Now is the winter of our discontent 

Made glorious summer by this sun of York. 

The work of each immortal bard appears 
The single wonder of a thousand years. 

She would make a better heroine than Clelia. 

The fiend lies stretched out, huge in length. 

She stood silent, as the heralds pressed her hand. 

The fog came pouring in at every chink and keyhole. 

His silence will sit drooping. 

My wedding-bell rings merry in my ear. 

XV. Objects of the Verb; Objective Predicate: §§358-71. 

The objective predicate word may be described as qualifying (or, 
if a noun, as relating to and describing) such and such a noun or 
pronoun, as objective predicate, being brought into connection with it 
by such and such a verb, of which it (the noun or pronoun) is the 
direct object. 

Ill leave my son my virtuous deeds behind. 

Now call me the chief of the harem-guard. 

He wrought the castle much annoy. 

I mean you no harm. 

He gives his parents no tremulous anxiety. 

An inauspicious office is enjoined thee. 

We could raise you five hundred soldiers. 

Ask me no questions, and 111 tell you no fibs. 
Grant me still a friend in my retreat, 
Whom I may whisper, " Solitude is sweet ! n 
Merry elves, their morrice pacing, 
Trip it deft and merrily. 

She sweeps it through the court with troops of ladies. 
We can walk it perfectly well; we want no coach to carry us 
now. 

The gale had sighed itself to rest. 

He sighed a sigh, and prayed a prayer. 



xiii.] EXERCISES. 183 

Death grinned horrible a ghastly smile. 

We will kiss sweet kisses. 

From them I go this uncouth errand sole. 

Cradles rock us nearer to the tomb. 

Perseverance keeps honor bright. 

All men think all men mortal but themselves. 

He hides his own offences, and strips others' bare. 

One touch of nature makes the whole world kin. 

You think him humble ; God accounts him proud. 

The shower has left the myrtles and the violet-bank so fresh. 

Sooner shall they drink the ocean dry. 

I warrant him a warrior tried. 

I must not see thee Osman's bride. 

Heaven's blest beam turns vinegar more sour. 

They found the language a barbarous jargon. 

Even silent night proclaims my soul immortal. 

Attention held them mute. 

XVI. Attributive and Appositive Adjective and Noun: 
§§ 372-9. 

We may describe the appositive noun as in apposition with such 
and such a noun (or pronoun), being added to it in order further to 
designate the same thing ; and the appositive adjective in a similar 
manner. 

History is philosophy teaching by examples. 
Without the assistance of these works, indeed, a revolution 
could have taken place — a revolution productive of much good 
and much evil ; tremendous but short-lived evil ; dearly purchased 
but durable good. 

Learning, that cobweb of the brain. 

Ardent and intrepid on the field of battle, Monmouth was every^ 
where else effeminate and irresolute. 
I found the urchin Cupid sleeping. 
On him, their second Providence, they hung. 
Sister Livy is married to farmer Williams. 
They sang Darius, good and great, 

By too severe a fate 
Fallen from his high estate, 
And weltering in his blood. 

Truth, crushed to earth, shall rise again ; 

But Error, wounded, writhes with pain, and dies. 



184 THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. [chap. 

Amazed, confused, he found his power expired. 
Now the herald lark left his ground nest. 

The daughter of a hundred earls, 

You are not one to be desired. 

Now the bright morning star, day's harbinger, 
Comes dancing from the East. 

They all, with one consent, began to make excuse. 
Enthusiastically attached to the name of liberty, these historians 
troubled themselves little about its definition. 
Superfluous lags the veteran on the stage. 

Volumed, and vast, and rolling far, 
The cloud enveloped Scotland's war. 

Raw in fields, the rude militia swarms ; 

Mouths without hands, maintained at vast expense, 

In peace a charge, in war a weak defence ; 

Stout, once a month they march, a blustering band, 

And ever, but in times of need, at hand. 

XVII. Adverbs: §§380-3. 

The ordinary constructions of the adverb have been abundantly exemplified 
in the exercises already given. 

But close around the body no cries were heard. 
The mighty wreck lay right athwart the stream. 
Here was the chair of state, having directly over it a rich 
canopy. 
The price of a virtuous woman is far above rubies. 
He is above, sir, changing his dress. 
The feast was over in Branksome tower. 
His father left him well off. 
My son is either married, or going to be so. 
I have forgot my part, and I am out. 
His right arm is bare; 
So is the blade of his scimitar. 

Out steps, with cautious foot and slow, 

And quick, keen glances to and fro, 

The outlaw. 

I pray thee by the gods above. 

On my way hither, I saw her come forth. 

Tarry till his return home. 

It is the signal of our friends within. 



xin.] EXERCISES. 185 

My tongue cannot impart 

My almost drunkenness of heart. 

Our then dictator saw him fight. 

Use a little wine for thine often infirmities. 

XVIII. Possessive Case and Possessives: §§ 384-9. 

The earth is the Lord's. 

Thou art freedom's now, and fame's. 

That is madam Lucy, my master's mistress's maid. 

I don't choose a hornet's nest about my ears. 

The lieutenant's last day's march is over. 

The power which brought you here hath made you mine. 
Five times outlawed had he been, 
By England's king and Scotland's queen. 

I knew myself only as his, his daughter, his the mighty. 

My life is my foe's debt. 

Winter's rude tempests are gathering now. 

Shall Rome stand under one man's awe ? 

His beard was of several days' growth. 

Do not name Silvia thine. 

The blind old man of Scio's rocky isle. 

Man's life is cheap as beast's. 

I will listen to your song, 
Soft as the soft complaining nightingale's. 

I was taken to a new toy of his and the squire's, which he 
termed the falconry. 

Letters came last night to a dear friend of the good duke of 
York's. 

This toil of ours should be a work of thine. 

XIX. Adverbial Objective and Nominative Absolute: 

§§ 390-7. 

The following sentence will furnish examples of parsing : 
he I waited an hour, staff in hand. 

In this sentence, the nouns hour and staff are to be described as 
hitherto, in regard to hind and form ; and their construction is to be 
denned in some such way as this : hour is an adverbial objective, 
added to the verb waited to point out hoiv long the waiting was ; 
staff is in the nominative absolute, being used along with its adjunct 
in hand to express a circumstance accompanying the act of waiting 
— as if it were " he waited with a staff in his hand." 



186 THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. [chap. 

Cowards die many times before their deaths. 
The duke will not draw back a single inch. 
His hoary head conspicuous many a league. 
I '11 make you ogle her all day. 
Thus have I been twenty years in thy house. 
The bird of dawning singeth all night long. 
.Tenderly her blue eyes glistened long time ago. 
This day will I begin to magnify thee. 

Five times every year he was to be exposed in the pillory. 
Something wicked this way comes. 

Seamen, with the self-same gale, 

Will several different courses sail. 

I was born 
Not three hours' travel from this very place. 

One morn, a Peri at the gate 
Of Eden stood, disconsolate. 

From morn 
Till noon he fell, from noon to dewy eve, 
A summer's day. 

The last impossible, he fears the first. 

The rest must perish, their, great leader slain. 

He left my side, 
A summer bloom on his fair cheeks, a smile 
Parting his innocent lips. 

There she stands, 
An empty urn within her withered hands. 
Each in his narrow cell forever laid, 
The rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep. 

The foe and the stranger will tread o'er his head, 
And we far away on the billow. 

Fast as shaft can fly, 
Blood-shot his eye, his nostrils spread, 
The loose rein dangling from his head, 
Housing and saddle bloody red, 

Lord Marmion's steed rushed by. 
All loose her negligent attire, 

All loose her golden hair, 
Hung Margaret o'er her slaughtered sire. 
Fire in each eye, and papers in each hand, 
They rave, recite, and madden round the land. 



xiii.]- EXERCISES. 187 

The ruffian who, with ghostly glide, 

Dagger in hand, steals close to your bedside. 

XX. Prepositional Phrases: §§398^-404. 

How to parse the preposition and its object as separate words has 
been already abundantly illustrated in previous exercises. The defi- 
nition of the two together as a phrase has now to be added ; and 
the construction of the phrase is to be stated, in the same manner as 
that of the simple part of speech to which the phrase is equivalent. 

A few additional examples for practice are given here. 

And every shepherd tells his tale 
Under the hawthorn in the dale. 

From peak to peak, the rattling crags among, 
Leaps the live thunder. 

Hands of invisible spirits touch the strings 
Of that mysterious instrument, the soul. 
There was shedding of blood and rending of hair. 
Why to frenzy fly for refuge from the blessings we possess? 
These are suggestions of a mind at ease. 
That is all the difference between them. 

All the triumphs of truth and genius over prejudice and power, 
in every country and in every age, have been the triumphs of 
Athens. 

By an exclusive attention to one class of phenomena, by an 
exclusive taste for one species of excellence, the human intellect 
was stunted. 
We take no note of time, but from its loss. 

We ne'er can reach the inward man, 
Or inward woman, from without. 
The time 'twixt six and now 
Must by us both be spent most preciously. 
Shriller shrieks now mingling come 
From within the plundered dome. 
Till then, in blood by noble Percy lie. 
Other ways exist besides through me. 

I chanced upon the prettiest oddest fantastical thing of a 
dream the other night. 

She shall be our messenger to this paltry knight. 
The gale had sighed itself to rest. 



188 COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES. [411- 



CHAPTER XIV. 

COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES. 

411. We saw in the last chapter how a sentence, while 
still remaining simple, could be filled up and made more 
completely expressive of a thought by expanding its sub- 
ject or its predicate, or both — that is, by adding to them a 
variety of modifying words or phrases, according to certain 
regular methods of combination. 

412. But there are also ways by which we put together 
simple seutences, each having its own subject and predicate, 
and make of them a kind of whole, a longer and more 
intricate sentence. If we say, for example, 

they spoke and we listened; they spoke but we listened; 

they spoke while we listened; we listened while they spoke; 

we listened to what they spoke; 

there are in each case two subject-pronouns, they and we, 
and each of these has its own predicate-verb, spoke and 
listened. The assertions or statements are therefore two. 
But we have used between them certain connecting words, 
w^hich so unite them that they may be looked upon as 
after all forming only one sentence. 

A sentence thus composed is no longer simple; it is 
either compound or complex (or both together). And 
we have in this chapter to see what such sentences are, 
and how they are made. 

413. As (409) we do not like to make a simple sentence 
too long and intricate, so, on the other hand, we do not like 



414] SIMPLE AND COMBINED SENTENCES. 189 

to make our simple sentences too bare, or to limit ourselves 
to simple sentences. To say 

they spoke: we listened, 
might, with the help of circumstances, be understood to 
mean the same with any of those sentences given in the 
preceding paragraph, the mind inferring each time what 
the relation was between the two acts. We join them 
together- with connectives, partly in order to make the 
relation more plainly and surely understood, partly because 
a succession of bare phrases would sound to us jerky and 
ungraceful. 

414. We could, if we chose, put all that we have to say into 
little separate sentences. 

Thus, for example : 

I awoke one day. It was last week. It was six o'clock. I got 
up at once. I dressed myself. The sun was up. It was hidden 
by clouds. The morning was not very light. I walked into the 
garden. The grass was still wet. The bushes were still wet. 
The dew lay upon them. I saw a bird. The bird lay on the 
ground. It could not fly. It was wounded. Some one had hit 
it with a stone. I picked the bird up. I brought it into the 
house. I put it into a cage. I fed it. I tended it. It got well. 
I released it. It flew away. 

The connection of all this is clear enough, though there are no 
connecting words to point it out. But it sounds very badly. 
~No one writes or talks in that way — unless sometimes for very 
young children, who have not yet grown familiar enough with 
language to make or to understand longer combinations of words. 
For the use of people in general, we work it into better shape 
by combining the little sentences with connectives ; by their 
aid, also, getting rid of unnecessary repetitions. For example : 

I awoke at six o'clock one day last week, and at once got up 
and dressed myself. The morning was not very light; for, though 
the sun was up, it was hidden by clouds. As I walked out into 



190 COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES. [414- 

the garden, where the grass and bushes were still wet with the 
dew that lay upon them, I saw a bird lying on the ground. It 
could not fly, because some one had wounded it with a stone. 
I picked the bird up and brought it into the house, put it into a 
cage, and fed and tended it until it got well; when I released 
it, and it flew away. 

[See Exercise XXI., at the end of the chapter.] 

415. The connecting words which bind sentences to- 
gether into one are the conjunctions, and the relative pro- 
nouns (174 etc.) and relative pronominal adjectives (210), 
which are also called* " conjunctive " (175, end), because 
they thus do the duty of conjunctions. 

A sentence which is joined with other sentences to make 
a larger sentence is called a clause. 

A clause is like a phrase (280) in being a combination -of words that often 
(423) performs the office of a single word, a part of speech ; but it differs in 
containing a subject and a predicate, and so being really a sentence by itself. 

416. The combination of clauses into sentences is of 
two degrees, one closer and the other less close. In the 
latter case, the clauses are put side by side and loosely tied 
together, as it were, each keeping its own value as an inde- 
pendent assertion ; in the former case, one clause is made a 
part or member of another, or becomes dependent on it. 

A few examples will make this distinction clearer. 

417. If we say, for example, 

I awoke, and I got up at once ; 

the sun was up, but it was hidden by clouds; 

the bird was shot, or some one had struck it; 

it was dark, for the sun was hidden ; 
each little sentence or clause, though joined on to another, has 
the value of a separate assertion in the larger sentence. 

Such clauses are called independent (or principal : that 
is, ' of first rank '). 



421] COMPOUND SENTENCE. 191 

With relation to one another, again, they are called co- 
ordinate : that is, • of equal order or rank.' 

418. The conjunctions which join clauses in this way, 
leaving to each its own original character, not making 
either dependent on the other, are called (328 etc.) the 
co-ordinating conjunctions. 

419. A sentence which is made up (like those above, 
417) of two or more independent clauses is called a com- 
pound sentence. 

But two or more independent clauses may be so connected in sense as to be 
regarded as parts of one sentence, even though they are not joined by conjunc- 
tions : thus, 

I cannot go ; my time is not up. 

And, on the other hand, we often put a simple connective, especially and or 
but, at the beginning of a separate sentence, or even of a paragraph, to point 
out in a general way its relation to what precedes. Thus there is no absolute 
distinction between the sentence and the clause. 

[See Exercise XXII., at the end of the chapter.] 

420. If, on the other hand, we say 

when I awoke, I got up, 

the combination is of another kind. Here the only real 
assertion is that I got up ; the clause when I awoke is 
a definition of the time of my getting up ; it means the 
same as the adverb-phrase on waking ; it is used as if it 
were an adverb of time qualifying the verb got up. 
If, again, we say 

it could not fly because it was wounded, 
the second clause has here also the value of an adverb 
qualifying could not fly, like the adverb-phrase on ac- 
count of its wound. 

421. Yet again, if we say 

the bird which I saw could not fly, 
the only assertion is that the bird could not fly ; the 
clause which I saw does nothing more than define or 



192 COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES. [421- 

describe the bird, just as an adjective would do. It has 
the value, therefore, of an adjective, and can easily be 
turned into an adjective form : thus, 

the bird seen by me. 

Indeed, we have seen (175) that every adjective qualifying a noun (attribu- 
tively or appositively) may be turned into such an adjective clause : thus, 

a good man, a whipped dog, 

are the same as 

a man who is good, a dog that has been whipped, 

and so on. 

422. Once more, if we say 

what lay there was a bird, 

the assertion is simply that a certain thing was a bird, and 

the thing is defined or named as being what lay there. 

The predicate-verb was has no other subject than what 

lay there. And these words are equivalent to the thing 

lying there — a noun with an adjective describing it. 

So in 

I saw that it was a bird ; 

I did not know whether it was a bird ; 

the clauses that it was a bird and whether it was a bird 

define or name the thing seen and the thing not known : 
they are just as much the objects of saw and did not know 
as the bird and anything are in the sentences 

I saw the bird ; I did not know anything. 
And in 

I went up to where it lay, 

the clause where it lay is just as much the object of the 

preposition to as the house is in 

*l went up to the house. 

Now all these — being subject or object of a verb, or 
object of a preposition — are constructions belonging to 
nouns ; and clauses thus used have the value of nouns 
in the sentences of which they form a part. 



425] COMPLEX SENTENCE. 193 

423- When a clause is tlius made to play the part of 
a word, a single part of speech, in another clause, it is 
said to be dependent on that other, or to be subordinated 
to it (that is, to be ' put in an inferior order or rank ' with 
reference to it) ; and it is called a dependent clause (or a 
subordinate, or an accessory clause). 

And, according to the part it plays, a dependent clause 
is called an adverb-clause, an adjective-clause, or a 
substantive-clause. 

Thus we have all the principal parts of speech (not the connectives) repre- 
sented by clauses, except the verb — and, of course, the pronoun, which is 
itself only a substitute for a noun. 

There can be no such thing as a verb-clause, because a verb has no other 
office than that of making a clause or sentence. 

A phrase like 

as regards, 
which is abbreviated from 

so far as it regards, 

may even be said to have the value of a preposition, or preposition-phrase ; — 
'concerning,' or ' in respect to.' 

424. A sentence which contains as one of its members 
a dependent clause is called a complex sentence : by this 
is meant that its parts are more ' woven together/ made 
into one, than those, of the " compound " sentence. 

[See Exercise XXIIL, at the end of the chapter.] 

425. A complex sentence may also contain more than 
one dependent clause. 

These may be of different kinds, and unconnected with one 
another : thus, 
what lay there was, if I saw aright, a bird which could not fly. 
Or, a dependent clause may have another clause dependent on 
itself, and this again another, and so on : for example, 

I went into the garden where the grass was wet with the dew 

that lay upon it; 
this is the dog that worried the cat that killed the rat that 
ate the malt that lay in the house that Jack built. 



194 COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES. [425- 

Or, two or more dependent clauses of the same kind may- 
have the same construction in a sentence, being joined together 
by co-ordinating conjunctions : thus, 

a bird that lay on the ground and that could not fly; 

it could not fly because it had been shot or it had been hit 

with a stone; 
I saw that the bird was wounded and that it could not fly. 

Dependent clauses, as well as independent ones (417), are 
called co-ordinate when thus joined, and having a like office, 
since co-ordinate simply means i having the same rank with one 
another.' 

426. A compound sentence, moreover, may be made by 
joining together, instead of simple sentences, complex ones, 
or simple and complex ones. Such a sentence is called 

COMPOUND-COMPLEX. 

427. In these ways, sentences of very great length and 
complexity are sometimes made. In theory, there is no 
limit to the extent to which a sentence may be compounded 
and made complex by the combination of clauses. But 
in practice (just as in the case of the extension of the sim- 
ple sentence: 409) a limit is set by the fear of becoming 
burdensome or unintelligible. 

In different styles of writing, and in the practice of different 
authors, the variety as regards the general simplicity or com- 
plexity of the structure of sentences is very great. 

[See Exercise XXIV., at the end of the chapter.] 

428. We may sum up what has been said of sentences 
otherwise than simple in the following definitions and 
rules : 

XVIII.- A sentence which forms a part of a more compre- 
hensive sentence is called a clause. 

XIX. A clause is either independent or dependent : inde- 
pendent, if it forms an assertion by itself; dependent, if 



430] DEPENDENT CLAUSES. 195 

it enters into some other clause with the value of a part of 
speech : namely, of a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. 

XX. Clauses are co-ordinate if they are of the same rank 
with one another : either as being alike independent, or as 
being alike dependent, with the same construction. 

XXI. A sentence is compound, if made up of independent 
clauses; complex, if it contains a dependent clause, or more 
than one ; compound-complex, if one or more of its inde- 
pendent clauses is complex. 

XXII. Co-ordinate clauses, whether independent or depen- 
dent, are usually joined together by co-ordinating conjunctions. 

XXIII. A dependent clause is joined to the clause (inde- 
pendent or dependent) on which it depends, or of which it 
forms a part, J>y a subordinating conjunction, or by a rela- 
tive pronoun or adjective. 

XXIV. A dependent clause is named from its office in the 
sentence of which it forms a part : it is a substantive, or an 
adjective, or an adverb clause. 

XXV. A substantive-clause is one -which performs the 
office of a noun : being the subject or object of a verb, the 
object of a preposition, and so on. 

XXVI. An adjective-clause is one which performs the 
office of an adjective, by describing or qualifying a noun. 

XXVII. An adverb-clause is one that performs the office 
of an adverb, by qualifying a verb, or adjective, or adverb. 

A few more detailed statements as to the three different kinds of dependent 
clauses need to be added here. 

ADJECTIVE-CLAUSES. 

429. Of the dependent clauses, the adjective-clause is 
simplest in its construction. It is always the equivalent 
of an attributive or appositive adjective, and regularly and 
usually follows the noun or pronoun which it qualifies. 

430. The adjective-clause is introduced either by a rela- 
tive pronoun, or else by such a conjunction as may also be 
called a relative adverb (313 e, 331) : namely, 

where, whence, whither, when, why. 



196 COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES. 430- 

Each of these last is equivalent to a relative pronoun with a preposition 
governing it. 

Thus, 

he whom thou lovest is sick; 

the horse that bore him is black; 

the city where ( = in which) he lived; 

the country whence ( = from which) he came; 

the reason why ( = for which) he is here ; 

the time when ( = at which) Rome was founded. 

[See Exercise XXV., at the end of the chapter.] 
ADVERB-CLAUSES. 

431. An adverb-clause usually qualifies a verb; much 
less often, an adjective ; and (as is also the case with simple 
adverbs : 309) an adverb rarely, except in the way of de- 
fining a decree. 

432. The adverb-clause is introduced by a great variety 
of conjunctions, and it has the same variety of meanings 
which belong to simple adverbs (311). 

Thus, we have adverb-clauses : 

a. Of place : for example, 

he lay where he fell ; 
whither I go, ye cannot come. 

b. Of time : for example, 

when I awoke, it was six o'clock; 
make hay while the sun shines. 
C. Of manner and degree : for example, 

he does as he likes; 

they are better than we had expected ; 

I am as tired as ever a man was. 
d. Of cause : for example, 

he retired because he could not help it; 

cursed be I, that I did so; 

since you say it, we believe it. 



434] ADVERB-CLAUSES. 197 

e. Of result or effect : for example, 

he was so weak that he fell ; 
they shouted till the woods rang. 

f. Of condition and concession : for example, 

if you are honest, you will be respected ; 

unless I am mistaken, it was he ; 

he could not do it, though he tried hard. 

g. Of end or purpose (" final clause ") : for example, 

he died that we might live; 

ye shall not touch it, lest ye die. 

This classification is not absolute : the different classes shade into one an- 
other ; the same conjunction has a variety of offices ; and a clause which 
literally means one thing is applied to quite another purpose — as the exam- 
ples given above in part illustrate. 

433. The conjunction introducing a clause often has a cor- 
relative adverb, of kindred meaning, in the clause on which 
this is dependent, answering toward it much the same purpose 
as the antecedent (175) to a relative : thus, 

where the bee sucks, there suck I; 

when the heart beats no more, then the life ends; 

if I speak false, then may my father perish ; ; 

though he slay me, yet will I trust in him; 

as I entered, so will I retire. 
And adverbs of manner and degree are apt to be followed by 
correlative conjunctions ; as such and # so by that; so and as by 
as; a comparative adverb — more, less, and the like — by than ; 
the (313 e) by the. 

Out of this usage grow a number of conjunction-phrases, as so as, so that, 
so far as, as good as, no sooner than, according as, and so on. 

[See Exercise XXVI., at the end of the chapter.] 

SUBSTANTIVE-CLAUSES. 

434. The substantive-clause has a great variety of con- 
structions, corresponding with those of the noun to which 
it is equivalent. 



198 COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES. [434- 

Thus, the substantive-clause is used : 

a. As subject of a verb : for example, 

what they say is not to the point; f 

whether you go or stay is of little account; 

that he is already gone disappoints us. 

The frequent substitution of it, as grammatical subject, for a substantive- 
clause, has been noticed above : see 163 a. 

b. As object of a verb : for example, 

I know not what I shall do; they saw that she was ill; 
we considered whether it would answer; 
he showed me where he had put it. 
C. As predicate noun : for example, 

he is precisely what he seems ; 
my home is wherever I am happy. 

d. In apposition : for example, 

the fact that it was done by him is apparent ; 

his letter is to the purport that he will soon arrive. 

e. As object of a preposition : for example, 

he traded with what capital he had; 

you err in that you think so; 

she is doing well, except that she cannot sleep. 

f. A substantive-clause introduced by that (or, rarely, lest) is 

also often added directly to* a verb or adjective or noun, where 

a noun would require a preposition to be used as connective : for 

example, • 

they insisted that we should stay; 

we cherish the hope that he will return; 

there is no need that she be present; 

we are quite sorry that it is so; 

he was afraid lest he should fall. 

while we should say 

insisted on his staying; hope of his return; 

need of her presence; sorry for its being so; 

and so with the rest. 



435] SUBSTANTIVE-CLAUSES. 199 

This construction is most analogous with that of the ad- 
verbial objective (390 etc.), or noun made adjunct to some 
other word without any sign of the relation between them 
being expressed. 

Another similar case, of a substantive-clause used adverbially without a prepo- 
sition, is seen in such sentences as 

whoever may say it, I shall not believe it; 
in whatever state I am, I am always content. 

The complete expression, namely, is 

whatever state 1 am in, I am always content with; 
or, analyzing the indefinite compound relative into antecedent and relative, 
content with any state in which I am. 

Then, putting a pronoun correlative to the dependent clause in the independent 
clause (433), we have, 

in whatever state 1 am, I am always content with it; 

and the omission of the adverb-phrase with it gives the form as first stated. 
In like manner, 

however he may struggle, he cannot escape, 
wherever he may be, he will be happy, 
are equivalent to 

he cannot escape by any way in which he may struggle; 
he will be happy in any place in which he may be; 

with the connectives by and in unexpressed. 

On the other hand, not a few words which were formerly prepositions govern- 
ing substantive clauses introduced by that have now come to be used, generally 
or always, directly as conjunctions (compare 331), by the omission of that: for 
example, 

after he had gone; until he shall arrive; 

except he confess it; 

while we may also say, 

after that he had gone, 

and so on. 

435. The words which introduce a substantive clause are 
especially these : 

a. The compound relative (181) pronouns and pronominal 
adjectives, with their corresponding adverbs : namely, 

who (whose, whom), what, which ; 

when, where, whence, whither, why, how; 

whoever, whosoever, whenever, etc. 



200 COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES. [435-437 

When used with a simple relative meaning, all these words introduce adjec- 
tive or adverb-clauses ; but, by including also the " antecedent " of their rela- 
tive part, they become equivalent to 

the person who, the thing which, 

the place in or from or to which, 

the time at which, the reason for which, 

and so on : that is, they imply a substantive word along with an adjective or 

adverbial adjunct. For example : 

I heard what he said; I know why he said it; 

are the same as 

I heard the thing which he said; 

I know the reason for which he said it. 

b. The conjunction whether, expressing a doubt or alterna- 
tive. If is sometimes, but less properly, used instead of it : 

thus, 

I know not if it be so. 

C. The conjunction that is (as the examples given above 
abundantly show) very common indeed as introducing sub- 
stantive-clauses, in many different constructions. Lest, which 
has nearly the value of its negative, that not, is much less fre- 
quent. 

[See Exercise XXVII., at the end of the chapter.] 

436. In clauses of all kinds, the connective that, whether 
relative pronoun or conjunction, is very often omitted : thus, 

it is strange they do not come; we saw he was there; 

that is the reason I do not like him; I am sure it is so; 

here is the book you were looking for; 

he came the moment he heard it. 

We have seen above (434, end) that, by_the omission of that, words formerly 
prepositions have taken on the character of conjunctions ; the same thing is 
sometimes true of other parts of speech : for example, 

now he is here, the rest will soon follow; 
once a beginning is made, the work is half done; 
you shall have it, provided it pleases you; 
in case we are beaten, we shall retire. 

437. A relative word is not seldom used as a means of attach- 
ing something additional to a sentence, having nearly the value 



chap, xiv.] EXERCISES. 201 

of and with a personal or demonstrative pronoun or adverb : 
thus, 

I gave him some bread, which he ate; 

they passed the cup to the stranger, who drank heartily; 

she carried it to the closet, where she stored it away. 

Here w h i c h he ate is equivalent to a n d he ate i t ; and so 

in the other cases. 

In this use, which sometimes has for its antecedent a clause instead of a 
word: thus, 

he did not come, which I greatly regret. 

[See Exercise XXVIII., at the end of the chapter.] 



EXEKCISES FOE PEACTICE 

IN COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES. 

XXL Combination and Separation of Sentences: 
§§ 412-4. 

It is extremely useful for a class to be practised in taking apart compound 
and complex sentences into the separate simple statements of which they are 
made up, and in putting together simple statements into combined forms — and 
this, not with any reference to defining the grammatical character of the sen- 
tences, but simply to show the different shape which may be given in expression 
to what is substantially the same thing, and to impart a sense of the variety of 
style in composition. Material for such practice may be found abundantly in 
any work that the class are using ; or it may be selected by the teacher ; or it 
may be made up by pupils or teacher. 

A few examples are added here : 

Separate statement : 
The boy had been called. He came at once. 

Combined statement : 

1. The boy bad been called, and came at once. 

2. The boy, when he had been called, came at once. 

3. The boy who had been called came at once. 



202 COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES. [chap. 

Separate statement : 

A frog had seen an ox. She wanted to make herself as big as 
he. She attempted it. She burst asunder. 

Combined statement : 

1. A frog had seen an ox, and wanted to make herself as big 
as he ; but when she attempted it, she burst asunder. 

2. A frog that had seen an ox, and wanted to make herself 
as big as he, burst asunder when she attempted it. 

3. When this frog burst asunder, she was wishing and attempt- 
ing to make herself as big as an ox which she had seen. 

4. Because a frog, when she had seen an ox, wanted to make 
herself as big as he, and attempted it, she burst asunder. 

5. It is said that a frog, having seen an ox, wanted to make 
herself as big as he, and burst asunder in the attempt. 

Separate statement, for various combination : 

A crow stole a piece of cheese. It had lain in a cottage- win- 
dow. She had discovered it there. She flew into a tree. The 
cheese was in her beak. A fox observed this. He came near. 
He sat under the tree. He began to praise the crow. He said 
this. " Your feathers are of a lovely color. I never saw any so 
beautiful. This is true. You have a fine shape. Your air is 
quite elegant. I never heard your voice. It must be sweet. I 
am sure of it. A melodious voice always goes along with such 
beauty. In that case no other bird can compare with you." The 
crow was delighted. She wriggled about on the branch. She 
put on graceful airs. She thought '. " My voice is as fine as my 
feathers. I will show this to the fox." She opened her mouth. 
She was going to sing. The cheese dropped. The fox was 
watching for this. He caught the cheese. It had not yet 
touched the ground. He ran off with it to his hole. His family 
were there. They all ate it together. He told them the story. 
They laughed at the crow's silly vanity. 

Combined statement, for separation and re-combination : 

After a shepherd -boy, who kept his sheep upon a common 
where there was a dangerous wood hard by, and who was a 
mischief-loving fellow, had three or four times cried out " Wolf! 
wolf ! " when there was no wolf coming, and so had cheated the 
husbandmen of the neighborhood, who would quit their work 
and run to help him, they all grew so distrustful of him that 



xiv.] EXERCISES. 203 

once, when a wolf actually came and attacked him, they would 
not listen to his cries, but stayed quietly in their fields and 
gardens, till the flock was scattered and destroyed and the boy 
was torn to pieces, while he lamented his own folly, and ex- 
claimed with his last breath that he who tells lies is only justly 
treated if he is not believed when he speaks the truth. 

XXII. Compound Sentences: Independent Co-ordinate 

Clauses: §§415-9. 

How to arrange such clauses, when written, so as best to illustrate their rela- 
tion, was shown in connection with Exercise V. (p. 22). For example : 

Knowledge I pufFeth tip, 
but 
charity I edifieth. 

A little weeping would ease my heart ; 

But in their briny bed 

My tears must stop, for every drop 

Hinders needle and thread. 

The mellow year is hasting to its close, 

The little birds have almost sung their last ; 

Their small notes twitter in the dreary blast. 

The dew was falling fast ; the stars began to blink ; 
I heard a voice ; it cried : Drink, pretty creature, drink ! 
Few and short were the prayers we said, 

And we spake not a word of sorrow ; 
But we silently gazed on the face of the dead, 
And we bitterly thought of the morrow. 
Now sings the woodland loud and long; 
The distance takes a lovelier hue ; 
And, drowned in yonder living blue, 
The lark becomes a sightless song. 
The cock is crowing ; the stream is flowing ; 
The small birds twitter ; the lake doth glitter; 

The green field sleeps in the sun. 
The vine still clings to the mouldering wall, 
And at every gust the dead leaves fall. 
The people are like the sea, and orators are like the wind. 
A fool speaks all his mind, but a wise man reserves something 
for hereafter. 
The king must win, or he must forfeit his crown forever. 



204 COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES. [chap. 

This is not my fault ; it is my destiny. 
You shall not die ; France needs you. 

Faithful are the wounds of a friend, but the kisses of an enemy 
are deceitful. 

This casket India's glowing gems unlocks, 
And all Arabia breathes from yonder box. 

XXIII. Complex Sentences (with one dependent clause): §§ 420-4. 

The clauses may be arranged, when written out, in the general manner 
already shown (Exercises V., X., pp. 22, 80, 81). But a dependent clause that 
belongs to and qualifies an individual word should be attached by its connective 
to that word. A substantive clause cannot always be conveniently treated in 
this way ; it may be arranged instead in two lines, with the connective above. 
Examples are : 

We I hear the (clock We I hear the clock 

(that I tolls the hour. as 

it I tolls the hour. 



That 

it I has tolled 



is certain. I I do not know whether 

it I has tolled. 



He had a fever when he was in Spain. 

Fools rush in where angels fear to tread. 

Freely we serve, because we freely love. 

Although we seldom followed advice, we were all ready enough 
to ask it. 

If I were not Alexander, I would be Diogenes. 

Even a fool, when he holdeth his peace, is counted wise. 

If the hill will not come to Mahomet, Mahomet will go to the 
hill. 

Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown. 

The Danube to the Severn gave 

The darkened heart that beat no more. 

They ne'er pardon who have done the wrong. 

He who would search for pearls must dive below. 

The evil that men do lives after them. 

He jests at scars who never felt a wound. 

Whatever is, is right. 

That you have wronged me appears in this. 

All that I dread is leaving you behind. 

Further examples, in greater abundance and variety, are given in Exercises 
XXV. -XXVII., below. 



xiv.] EXERCISES. 205 

XXIV. Complex Sentences (with more than one dependent clause); 
Compound-complex Sentences: §§ 425-7. 

It is possible to arrange all the clauses of an intricate sentence in such a way 
as to show their relations to one another ; but the process becomes a burden- 
some one, and hard to carry out, when the sentence is protracted and involved 
— and especially if, as is very often the case, incomplete and abbreviated clauses 
(Chapter XVII.) are mingled with the others. If practice enough is given to 
impress clearly the modes of sentence-combination, nothing further is neces- 
sary ; those cases may well be passed over, or written out in parts instead of as 
a whole, where a different treatment would be more confusing and embarrassing 
than helpful. 

An example of more intricate combination is the following : 

It was also true that tlje Earl of Lauderdale, who, both from 
his high talents and from the long imprisonment which he had 
sustained ever since the battle of Worcester, had a peculiar title 
to be consulted on Scottish affairs, strongly advised the king that 
he should suffer his northern subjects to retain possession of their 
darling form of worship. 

It was also true 

that 
the / Earl of Lauderdale | strongly advised the king 
) that 

J he | should suffer his northern etc. 

\ who | had both from his high talents 

and from the long imprisonment ) a peculiar title to be etc. 
he | had sustained which ) ever since the battle etc. 

The Lord shall send upon thee cursing, until thou be destroyed, 
and until thou perish quickly. 

We miss those hideous forms which make so striking a part of 
the description, and which Salvator Rosa would have loved to 
draw. 

When faith is lost, when honor dies, the man is dead. 

He that observeth the wind shall not sow ; and he that regard- 
eth the clouds shall not reap. 

If thou be wise, thou shalt be wise for thyself; but if thou 
scornest, thou alone shalt bear it. 

The very insects, as they sipped the dew that gemmed the ten- 
der grass of the meadows, joined in the joyous bridal song. 

When they came to countries where the inhabitants were cow- 
ardly, they took possession of the land. 

Events which, if they ever happened, happened in ages and 
nations so remote that the particulars never could have been 



206 COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES. [chap. 

known to him, are related with, the greatest minuteness of de- 
tail. 

We cannot perceive that the study of grammar makes the 
smallest difference in the speech of people who have always lived 
in good society. 

When the fit was on him, I did mark how he did shake. 

We thought, as we hollowed his narrow bed 

And smoothed down his lonely pillow, 

How the foe and the stranger would tread o'er his head. 

And what delights can equal those 
That stir the spirit's inward deeps, 
When one that loves, but knows not, reaps 

A truth from one that loves and knows. 
While we breathe beneath the sun, 
The world, which credits what is done, 

Is cold to all that might have been. 

You all did see that, on the Lupercal, 
I thrice presented him a kingly crown, 
Which he did thrice refuse. 

Much pleased was he to find 
That, though on pleasure she was bent, 
She had a frugal mind. 

XXV. Adjective-clauses: §§429-30. 

He that hath wife and children hath given hostages to fortune. 

I tell you that which ye yourselves do know. 

That life is long which answers life's great end. 

He is the freeman, whom the truth makes free. 

Those that think must govern those that toil. 

I know a bank whereon the wild thyme blows. 

It is the hour when lovers' vows 
Seem sweet in every whispered word. 

I am near to the place where they should meet. 

I have shook off the regal thoughts wherewith I reigned. 

We came unto the land whither thou sentest us. 

The reason why the seven stars are no more than seven is a 
pretty reason. 

That fearful moment when he left the cave, thy heart grew 
chill. 

They never fail who die in a just cause. 



xiv.] EXERCISES. 207 

A history in which every particular incident may be true may 
on the whole be false. 
His praise is lost who stays till all commend. 

For those that fly may fight again, 
Which he can never do that's slain. 

That was he without whose life I had not been. 

Thou shin'st in every tear that I do weep. 

He had done that which could never be forgiven. 

He may thank you for all that hath happened. 

I would hear the voice which was my music. 

A people whom I have not known shall serve me. 

XXVI. Adverb-clauses : §§ 431-3. 

Mammon wins his way where seraphs might despair. 
Whither thou goest I will go; and where thou lodgest I will 
lodge. 

Wheresoever the carcass is, there will the eagles be gathered 
together. 

The blood will follow where the knife is driven ; 
The flesh will quiver where the pincers tear. 

Hell trembled as he strode. 

I must pause till it come back to me. 

An idler is a watch that wants both hands, 

As useless if it goes as when it stands. 

When I was young, I thought of nothing else but pleasure. 

Pride may be pampered, while the flesh grows lean. 

7 T is full ten months since I did see him last. 

I felt that he was present, ere my eye told it me. 

Now that their distress was over, they forgot that he had 
returned to them. 

In Britain, the conquered race became as barbarous as the con- 
querors were. 

Death itself is not so painful as is this sudden horror and sur- 
prise. 

So much has passed between us as must make me bold, her 
fearful. 

His misery was such that none of the bystanders could refrain 
from weeping. 

Since my country calls me, I obey. 

Freely we serve, because we freely love. 



208 COMPOUND. AND COMPLEX SENTENCES. [chap. 

Ye know the heart of a stranger, seeing ye were strangers in 
the land of Egypt. 

That is strange, considering he is your next neighbor. 

He gazed so long that both his eyes were dazzled. 

The pains are no sooner over than they are forgotten. 

Scarce had he mounted, ere the Pappenheimers broke through 
the lines. 

If you have tears, prepare to shed them now. 

So Mahomet and the mountain meet, it is no matter which 
moves to the other. 

What 's a tall man unless he fight ? 

Although the wound soon healed again, 
Yet, as he ran, he yelled for pain. 

I came, that Marco might not come. 

Ye shall not eat of it, lest ye die. 

Where your treasure is, there will your heart be also. 

I will run as far as God has any ground. 

As heroes think, so thought the Bruce. 

The earlier you rise, the better your nerves will bear study. 

Tears, such as angels weep, burst forth. 

All hast thou spoken as my thoughts are. 

Other harvest here than that which peasant's scythe demands 
was gathered in. 

All the more it seeks to hide itself, the bigger bulk it shows. 

Thou knowest how her image haunted me 
Long after we returned to Alcala. 

XXVII. Substantive-clauses: §§434-5. 

What reason weaves by passion is undone. 

Who cheapens life abates the fear of death. 

The triumph of my soul is that I am. 

What followed was in perfect harmony with the beginning. 

How he can is doubtful ; that he never will is sure. 

Who builds a church to God, and not to fame, 
Will never mark the marble with his name. 

They will admit that he was a great poet, but they will deny 
that he was a great man. 

That there should have been such a likeness is not strange. 
He hath heard that men of few words are the best men. 
You have heard if I fought bravely. 
Why me the stern usurper spared, I knew not. 



xiv.] EXERCISES. 209 

I have often been told by my friends that I was rather too 
modest. 

He little knew how much he wronged her. 

I never was what is popularly called superstitious. 

They made a bargain that they would never forsake each other. 

You said nothing of how I might be dungeoned for a madman. 

The theatre affords the most appropriate example of what I 
mean. 

I have sinned in that I have betrayed the innocent blood. 
Knowledge is proud that he has learned so much; 
Wisdom is humble that he knows no more. 

Still the wonder grew 
That one small head could carry all he knew. 
Persuasion in me grew that I was heard with favor. 
I am not so certain that these much-decried children have been 
dunces. 

I don't care a jot whether you are a prince. 
We know that nations may be miserable amid victories. 
The heart distrusting asks if this be joy. 
It is to you, good people, that I speak. 
See what a rent the envious Casca made. 
I feared lest it might anger thee. 
Whence thou return'st and whither went'st, I knew. 
They have no sense of why they sing. 

They were but too ready to believe that whoever had incurred 
his displeasure had deserved it. 

Whate'er this world produces, it absorbs. 
Thou canst make conquest of whate'er seems highest. 
Howe'er deserved her doom might be, 
Her treachery was faith to me. 
Whate'er he be, 't was not what he had been. 

Where'er I roam, whatever realms I see, 
My heart, untravelled, fondly turns to thee. 

XXVIII. Omission of that; dependent clauses of addi- 
tion: §§ 436-7. 

Thou see'st I am calm. 

No wonder you are deaf to all I say. 

I do assure you I would offer him no less. 

The moment my business here is arranged, I must set out. 

Now I think on thee, my hunger 's gone. 



210 COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES, [chap. xiv. 

Take the good the gods provide thee. 

Here find that calm thou gav'st so oft before. 

There be some sports are painfuL 

And you may gather garlands there 
Would grace a summer queen. 

I carried her to the bed, where I laid her down. 

A glass was offered to Mannering, who drank it to the health 
of the reigning prince. 

With full assent they vote ; whereat his speech he thus renews. 

The schoolmaster had hardly uttered these words, when the 
stranger entered. 

When thou fall'st must Edward fall : which peril Heaven for- 
fand! 

The rich with us have two sources of wealth, whereas the poor 
have but one. 

I thrice presented him a kingly crown, which he did thrice 
refuse. 

They charged the jailer to keep them safely; who, having 
received such a charge, thrust them into the inner prison. 



438, 439] INFINITIVE AND PARTICIPLE. 211 



CHAPTER XV. 

INFINITIVE AND PARTICIPLE CONSTRUC- 
TIONS. 

438. The infinitives and participles are, as we have 
. seen (235), verbal nouns and adjectives : that is to say, 

words which, while keeping in general their character and 
use in the sentence as nouns and adjectives, take at the 
same time the adjuncts or modifiers which are taken by 
the verb to which they belong — such as objects, predicate 
nouns and adjectives, and adverbs. 

Thus, for example, in the " progressive present tense " 

I am reading, 
the participle reading takes all the modifiers which go with the 
simple verbal form read in I read; and therefore I am reading 
can be treated as if it were also a simple tense. And the same 
is true of the infinitive read in the " future tense " 

I shall read. 

On account of this double character, the infinitives and 
participles have some peculiar constructions, to which it is 
necessary to give a little special attention. 

INFINITIVES. 

439. There are, as has been already pointed out (237), two 
simple infinitives to every verb : thus, 

give, giving; love, loving; be, being; have, having. 
Que of these, which has always the same form with the root 
of the verb, is called simply the infinitive — or, for distinction, 
the root-infinitive. The other, which always ends in ing, 
having the same form with the present participle, is called the 
infinitive in ing, or the participial infinitive. 



212 INFINITIVE AND PARTICIPLE. [439- 

In addition to these, every verb forms, by adding its present 
and past participle to the infinitives of the auxiliaries have and 
be, certain infinitive-phrases, which, with the names by 
which they are called, may be repeated here from Chapter VIII. 
(294, 300). 

Thus, to the root-infinitive : 

Simple. Progressive. Passive. 

Present (to) give, (to) be giving, (to) be given; 

Perfect (to) have given, (to) have been giving, (to) have been given ; 

and to the participial infinitive : 

Present giving, [being giving,] being given; 

Perfect having given, having been giving, having been given. 

The progressive form being giving, though not forbidden, is so uncommon 
that it can hardly be said to be in practical use. 

440. The root-infinitive usually has before it the prepo- 
sition to, which is called its sign, and is to be considered 
and described as a part of it. 

In the oldest English, this preposition was only used with the infinitive 
when it had a real prepositional value : for example, in such phrases as 

it is good to eat; m there is much to say: 

that is, 'good unto eating or for eating'; 'much for saying.' But we add it 
now to the infinitive in a mechanical way, as if it were a mere grammatical 
device for pointing out that the following word is an infinitive. 

441. But the to is also in a great many cases omitted. 
Thus, 

a. After the verbs generally used as auxiliaries (280), both 
in the formation of verb-phrases, and in their more independent 
use. 

These auxiliaries are do, will, shall, may, can, and must. Ought 
requires the to. 

b. After a few other verbs, either usually or optionally. Such 
are dare, help, need, 'gin (for begin) ; and please and go in cer- 
tain uses : for example, 



443] SIGN OF THE INFINITIVE. 213 

he dared not leave the place; 
or he did not dare to leave it; 

go find your master; 
k^ he went to find him. 

C. In certain peculiar or elliptical constructions. 
. Thus, after had followed by as lief, rather, etc. : for example, 

you had better go home; I had rather die than do it; 
in comparative phrases, like 

as well yield at once as struggle vainly; 
after but following a negative : thus, 

she cannot but grieve for him; 
they did nothing but idle about; 

and a few other less common cases. 

d. After certain verbs, when preceded by a word having the 
relation of object to those verbs, but also the logical value (see 
below, 449) of a subject to the infinitive. 

The most common of this class of verbs are see, hear, feel, 
let, make, bid, help, have (in the sense of 'make' or c cause'), 
know, find. Examples are : 

I saw him do it; I must not have you question me. 

After some of these, to is allowed, or is even more usual ; and, on the other 
hand, there are other verbs after which the to is occasionally omitted, especially 
in antique and poetic styles. 

Where the preceding verb is made passive, to is regularly used : thus, 

he was seen to do it. 

442. The two infinitives, with the infinitive-phrases that be- 
long to them, have in part the same uses with each other, and 
in part different uses. In noticing the infinitive constructions, 
we will take up first those in which both agree. 

443. The infinitives are used as subject of a verb, or as 
predicate-noun with a verb. 

Examples are 

for him, to hear is to obey; 
ail we want is to be let alone; 



214? INFINITIVE AND PARTICIPLE. [443- 

seeing is believing; 

giving one's money away liberally is far better than keeping 

everything to one's self; 
his having been absent is a great pity. 

We have already noticed (163 a) the frequent anticipation 
of a subject infinitive (as of a substantive clause, 434 a) by 
an it standing as grammatical subject before the verb : while 
the infinitive, the logical subject, follows the verb : thus, for 
example, 
. it is good to be here; it will not suit us to go with you. 

444. The infinitives are used as object of a verb. 

There are many cases under this head in which either infini- 
tive may be used : thus, 

he likes to journey rapidly, 
or 

he likes journeying rapidly; 

I intend to start to-morrow, 
or 

I intend starting to-morrow. 

But there are others in which usage allows only the one or the 

other of them : thus, 

we used to live here; 

they resented having been insulted. 

As was pointed out above (280), the use of the infinitive with auxiliaries in 
verb-phrases really belongs under this head. Thus, I do love is * T perform the 
act of loving' ; I will love is ' I choose or resolve on loving' ; I can love is ' I 
am capable of loving ' ; and so on. 

445. The infinitives are used as object of a preposition. 

But the root-infinitive is thus used nowadays only with the 
preposition about: thus, 

he was about to depart (or about departing), 

in the peculiar sense of i concerned with, busy about/ and so 
i on the point of/ departing. In older English, it was also 
much used in the same way after for : thus, 

what went ye out for to see? 



4*7] INFINITIVE CONSTRUCTIONS. 215 

and it was occasionally made the object of other propositions ; 
hut all this is now no longer proper. 

On the other hand, the infinitive in ing is very common after 
a great variety of prepositions : thus, 

he is tired of wasting his time on trifles; 

I know nothing about her having done it; 

the horse is worn with having been ridden so hard. 

446. These are all the constructions of the infinitive in ing. 
They are especially peculiar in this : that the infinitive very 
often has before it a noun or pronoun in the possessive, signify- 
ing the person or thing to which the action expressed by the 
infinitive belongs, the one most concerned with it. And this 
possessive has almost always the value of a subjective genitive 
(385 a), or one which points out the subject of the verbal action 
■ — one which, if the infinitive phrase were turned into a sub- 
stantive-clause (as it always may be), would be the subject of 
that clause. Thus, 

Tom's being here was a lucky thing; 

they insisted on h i s following them; 

he knew of my having been left outd- 
are equivalent to 

it was a lucky thing that Tom was here; 
they insisted that he should follow them; 
he knew that I had been left out. 

But the possessive may also have the value of an objective genitive (385 b), 
pointing out the object or recipient of the verbal action : thus, 

the deep damnation of his taking off; 

where the equivalent expression with subjective genitive would be of their 
taking him off; or, with the object turned into a passive subject, of his being 
taken off. 

447. The rises of the infinitive in ing shade off into those 

of an ordinary abstract noun, and it is not possible to draw a 

line sharply between its values as the one thing and as the other. 

Thus, in 

we read of Caesar's passing the Rubicon, 



216 INFINITIVE AND PARTICIPLE. [447- 

passing is unmistakably an infinitive, because it takes a direct 
object, Rubicon. But in 

Caesar's passing of the Rubicon, 
and yet more in 

the passing of the Rubicon by Caesar, 
passing has so entirely the construction of a noun, as if it were 
the passage of the Rubicon, that we can hardly call the word 
anything but a noun. 
Out of this double value grow cases of disputed propriety of usage. 

4^8. The root-infinitive, accompanied by its sign to, is 
used after many verbs and adjectives and nouns, and even 
adverbs, to point out intent, purpose, object, consequence, 
and the like. 

Thus, 

he came to visit us ; 

we are here to hear what you shall say ; 

he fell, never to rise again ; 

they are ready to find fault, and hard to please; 

I have a work to do, and courage to perform it; 

it was a path to guide their feet. 

The common use of an infinitive after be, to express something expected or 
required, is of this character. Thus, 

this is to be done at once; he is to die at sunrise: 

that is, this is a thing for being done, and so on (compare 440). 

Any adjective or adverb qualified by too or enough may be 
followed by such an infinitive : thus, 

they are too many to be sacrificed, but not strong enough 

to conquer; 
I love you too much to let you go. 
This very common construction is the one in which the sign 
of the infinitive, the preposition to, retains most of its original 
and proper value, as meaning ' unto, in order to, for the purpose 
of/ and the like. But the construction has quite outgrown its 
natural limits, and the infinitive with to (like the substantive 
clause, 434 f ) is now used in numerous cases where with the 



449] INFINITIVE CONSTRUCTIONS. 217 

infinitive in ing, or with a noun of any kind, a different prep- 
osition would be necessary. Thus, 

he failed to appear ; I have reason to suspect ; 

he was glad to be there ; 
where we should say 

failed of appearing, or of appearance; 

reason for suspecting, or for suspicion; 
glad at being there, or of his presence. 

Other examples are 

we grieve to hear (but at hearing); 

a fool to think so (but for thinking) ; 

a proposal to send (but of sending); 

ashamed to beg (but of begging). 

This (like the similar use of the substantive clause, 434) may 
be called the construction of the infinitive as an adverbial 
objective (390), its use as an adjunct to another word without 
any sign of connection expressed between the two. 

449. The root-infinitive, with or without to, is used 
after a verb and its object, as a kind of adjunct to the 
latter, signifying an action in which it is concerned. 

Thus, 
they saw her depart; nobody imagined him to be listening; 

they declared him to have been killed. 

This important and widely used construction has more than 
one starting-point. In such cases as 

I told him to go; they forbade us to enter; 

the infinitive is really the direct object, and the pronoun the 
indirect object, of the verb, just as in the sentences 

I told him a story ; they forbade us entrance. 

In other cases, like 

I forced him to go ; they counselled us to remain ; 

the to has nearly its proper value of a preposition governing a 
noun, as in 
I forced him to the wall ; they counselled us to this action. 



218 INFINITIVE AND PARTICIPLE. [449- 

But here again (as in the case described in the preceding 
paragraph), the construction has been carried much beyond its 
natural limits, as the object of the verb has come to seem a kind 
of subject to the infinitive ; since, for example, 
I ordered the boy to be off; 
he believed his friend to have been wronged; 
are equivalent to 

1 ordered that the boy should be off; 
he believed that his friend had been wronged. 
In any such case, the object can be turned into the subject of 
a passive verb-phrase, the infinitive (with to) remaining as an 
adverbial adjunct to the latter : thus, 

she was seen to depart; the boy was ordered to be off; 
his friend was believed by htm to have been wronged. 
450. The root-infinitive is sometimes used in other more 
anomalous cases, of which the commonest are the following : 

a. After seem and the like : thus, 

they seemed to tremble. 
This is most like the passive construction (noticed just above), they were 
seen to tremble. 

b. After as, preceded by so, such, and the like : thus, 

it was so used as to be worn out ; 
he is such a fool as to believe the story. 
This is most like the use of an infinitive after an adjective or adverb with 
too or enough (448 : compare 494). 

C. After a relative word, in such phrases as 

he knows not when to go, or where to stay. 

This may be explained as an ellipsis for when he is to go, and so on. And 
a' similar ellipsis is to be seen in 

the wrath to come ; a generation yet to be born ; 

for the wrath which is to come, and so on. 

d. After have in the sense of c be obliged, be called upon ' : thus, 

we have to leave in an hour. 
This is doubtless by an extension of such transitive constructions as 
we have to perform a duty ; 
and this is itself only a transformation of 

we have a duty to perform : 
tkat is, q (futy for performing (448). 



453] PARTICIPLES AND PARTICIPLE-PHRASES. 219 

e. After had followed by a word of comparison, especially as lief, rather, 
better, in such j)hrases as 

I had rather go than stay; you had better be careful. 

Here the infinitive is really the direct object of had, which is preterit sub- 
junctive, and the comparative is an objective predicate qualifying it : the mean- 
ing is ' 1 should hold or regard going a better thing than staying ' ; and so on. 

451. A word (pronoun) in the predicate after an infinitive having a subject 
(449) which is the object of another verb, is put in the objective case, to agree 
with the word to which it relates (compare 371) : thus, 

we knew it to be him. 
[See Exercise XXIX., at the end of the chapter.] 

PARTICIPLES. 

452. There are, as we have seen already (238), two simple 
participles belonging to an English verb : thus, 

giving, given; loving, loved; being, been; having, had. 

One of these, ending always in ing, we called the present 
participle ; the other, formed in a variety of ways, we called the 
past or the passive participle. 

These are names only of convenience, and by no means accurately descriptive. 
The " present " participle really denotes action continuing or in progress, equally 
in time past or present or future : thus, 

I was sitting; I am sitting; I shall be sitting. 

And the other denotes sometimes (in intransitive verbs) completed action, or con- 
dition as the result of such, and sometimes (in transitive verbs) action endured, 
equally without reference to time : thus, 

he was gone; he is gone; he will be gone; 

he was sent; he is sent; he will be sent. 

Participle-phrases, having constructions akin with those of the 
simple participles, are, for the present participle, a perfect 
and progressive perfect : as, for example, 

having given and having been giving; 
and, for the past participle in its passive use, a progressive 
passive and a perfect passive : as, for example, 
being given and having been given. 

453. The constructions of the participles differ less from 
those of ordinary adjectives than the constructions of the infini- 



220 INFINITIVE AND PARTICIPLE. [453- 

tives from those of ordinary nouns, since adverbial modifiers are 
taken in general by adjectives as well as by verbs, and only the 
present participle (with its phrases) takes an object, or is fol- 
lowed by a predicate noun or adjective (except in verb-phrases 
with the auxiliary have). 

454. In the progressive and passive verb-phrases, with 

the auxiliary be, the present and passive participles have the 

same modifiers which they take in their more independent uses ; 

but in the perfect verb-phrases, with the auxiliary have, the 

passive participle loses its peculiar character, and becomes like the 

present, having the same constructions with it. 

Thus, we say 

seeming happy; giving a book; 

just as we say 

he was seeming happy; I am giving a book; 

but though we say 

he has seemed happy; he had given a book; 

we cannot say 

seemed happy; given a book. 

This is because (as explained above, 289) the participle with have was origi- 
nally an objective predicate, qualifying the direct object of the auxiliary ; while 
the combination has now become a merely mechanical one, a device for signify- 
ing certain varieties of past time, and it can no longer be taken apart and parsed 
word by word. Thus I have loved and \ had struck show varieties of the time 
of loving and striking, and no trace of their original passive meaning is left to 
the participles loved and struck; their uses are parallel with those of loving and 
striking in I am loving, I was striking. 

455. Both the simple participles (not the participle- 
phrases also) are freely used as attributive adjectives, with 
only such modifiers as may be taken by all adjectives. 

For example : 

a charming face; a very loving heart; 

his brightly shining arms; singing birds; 

a charmed snake; a warmly loved friend; 

brightly polished arms; well sung songs. 

A past participle, when thus used attributively, or in the manner of an ordi- 
nary adjective, sometimes has a fuller form than in its more proper participial 
use : thus, in 

a learned man, a blessed sight, 

we regularly pronounce the words with two syllables ; while in 

he learned his lesson, they blessed the day, 



456] PARTICIPLE CONSTRUCTIONS. 221 

the same are spoken with only one. And we saw above (275) that the old form 
of a past participle in en is in many cases preserved in adjective use : thus, 

a drunken man ; a swollen face ; 

but . 

he has drunk ihe draught; his face has swelled. 

Not a few words which are participles in form are so constantly used as ordi- 
nary adjectives that they hardly seem to us to be participles at all — sometimes, 
indeed, there is no verb in present use to which they belong : thus, 

charming, interesting, trifling, cunning; 
beloved, forlorn, civilized, antiquated, past. 

And we have seen (194 c) that a great many compound words take the parti- 
cipial ending ed to make them adjectives : thus, 

barefooted, one-armed, chicken-hearted. 

456. The simple participles (hardly ever the participle- 
phrases also) are used in the various constructions of a 
predicate adjective. 

Of the simple predicate, the hest examples are the progres- 
sive and passive verb-phrases, such as 

he is beating, he is beaten, 

which are used in all connections as if they were simple verb- 
forms, active and passive. 

Of the adverbial predicate (355), examples are : 

he came running to where she lay sleeping; 
it stands firmly planted. 

Of the objective predicate (369), examples are : 

I will have a doctor sent for; 

he made his influence everywhere felt; 

they saw him leading the child; 

he kept us waiting an hour. 

The present participle appears" sometimes to have, especially in the predicate 
after be, a passive force, in such phrases as 

the house is building ; we know what is doing there; 

the horses are putting to. 

But these apparent present participles are held to have been originally 
participial infinitives, the phrases being really 

the house is in (or on) building; 



2'Z2 INFINITIVE AND PARTICIPLE. [456- 

that is, 'in process of building ' — and so with the rest. The colloquial 
is a building and the like show a relic of the lost preposition. 

It is in order to avoid the ambiguity of such expressions as these that our 
progressive passive phrases (299) have been formed in recent times. 

457. The participles and participle-phrases are used 
with the utmost freedom appositively (376), or with the 
construction of an adjective more loosely attached to the 
noun qualified by it. 

For example : 

she, dying, gave it to me; 

having made his best bow, John retired; 

the enemy, beaten, fled, abandoning his camp; 

having been sent on an errand, he is not here. 

Often, instead of using an adjective or a past participle by 

itself as directly appositive, we insert the participle being, or its 

corresponding phrase having been, as a kind of sign or auxiliary 

of appositive construction, the adjective or past participle (very 

rarely, a present participle) then coming to be predicative after 

it. Thus, 

John, being weary, has retired; 

the enemy, having been beaten, fled. 

458. We have seen (376) that the appositive adjective 
especially implies the suggestion of an adjective clause of which 
it is itself the predicate. And the participles and participle- 
phrases, used appositively, have very often the value of such 
clauses, being, in a manner, a substitute for them. 

Thus, in place of some of the examples given in the preceding 
paragraph, we might have said : 

she gave it to me when she died; 

John retired after he had made his bow; 

he is not here, because he has been sent away. 

459. In not a few cases, the construction with a participle 
qualifying an object-noun (whether as objective predicate or as 
appositive) is equivalent to that of an infinitive with its ob- 



461] INFINITIVE AND PARTICIPLE CONSTRUCTIONS. 223 

jective subject (449), or of an infinitive in ing with its sub- 
jective possessive (446). Thus, 

I saw him get down from his horse; 
I saw his getting down from his horse; 
I saw him getting down from his horse. 

In all these three nearly equivalent expressions, the pronouns him and his are 
logically (that is, according to the real sense) subject of the action expressed 
by the infinitive or participle : the meaning is that 'he got down from his 
horse, and I saw it.' They are three different but related ways in which these 
verbal nouns and adjectives are made to play a part like that of real verbs in 
dependent clauses. 

The passive participle in like manner plays the part of a passive verb : thus, 

I saw h i m struck down by the assassin 

is equivalent to 

I saw how he was struck down etc. ; 
or, in active phrase, 

I saw the assassin strike (or striking) him down. 

460. Hence (both after a verb and after a preposition) the 
two constructions, of an objective case qualified by a present 
participle and of a possessive qualifying an infinitive in ing, are 
to a certain extent interchangeable ; and the question sometimes 
arises as to which should be preferred. There are cases where 
both are equally proper ; but even among good writers (and yet 
more among careless ones), the one is occasionally found where 
more approved usage would favor the other : thus, 

pardon me blushing ; 

the certainty of the old man interrupting him; 

the hope of society is in men caring for better things; 

where my blushing, the old man's interrupting him, and men's 
caring would doubtless be better. 

461. The participles and participle-phrases are used, 
much more freely and often than any other kind of appo- 
sitional adjunct (395), in making an absolute construction, 
with either noun or pronoun. 



224 INFINITIVE AND PARTICIPLE. [461-462 

Thus, 

the teacher absenting himself, there was no school ; 
one of them having fallen, the rest ran away ; 
it being very cold, we made a fire; 

or, with the passive participle, 

this said, he sat down ; 

the signal being given, they started ; 

the ceremony having been completed, we dispersed. 

Instead of a simple passive participle, or an adjective or other 

word or phrase, being taken directly with the noun or pronoun 

in absolute construction, an auxiliary being or having been is 

very often introduced, the other then becoming a predicate after 

it (just as in the ordinary appositive construction, 457) : for 

example, 

this having been said, he sat down ; 

his heart being heavy with sorrow; 

and so in other like cases. 

Such phrases as 

we sitting, as I said, the cock crew loud; 
I having hold of both, they whirl asunder ; 
how can we be happy, thou being absent? 

show that in the absolute construction the noun or pronoun is regularly in the 
nominative case. But instances of the objective are also sometimes found in 
good English writing, especially of an earlier time : thus, 

this inaccessible high strength, us dispossessed, he trusted to have seized. 

462. It may be added, finally, that the simple participles 
are, in the same manner as ordinary adjectives, used sub- 
stantively, or as nouns. 
Thus, 
the living and the dead ; the poor and suffering ; 

the lost, buried, and forgotten. 



chap, xv.] EXERCISES. 225 

EXERCISES TO CHAPTER XV. 

ON INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 

The parsing of infinitives and participles calls for no special ex- 
planations or directions." Each is to be defined as being this or that 
infinitive or participle, or infinitive or participle phrase, belonging to 
such and such a verb, of such a conjugation (see the directions for 
the parsing of verbs, p. 131 etc.) ; and the construction is then to be 
stated, in accordance with the principles laid down in this chapter. 

XXIX. Infinitive Constructions: §§443-51. 

To be contents his natural desire. 

To fly from need not be to hate mankind. 

To seek philosophy in Scripture is to seek the dead among the 
living ; to seek religion in Nature is to seek the living among the 
dead. 

Not to know me argues yourselves unknown. 

It is more blessed to give than to receive. 

Oh, it is excellent to have a giant's strength; but it is tyran- 
nous to use it like a giant. 

For not to have been dipped in Lethe lake 
Could save the son of Thetis from to die. 

To look at thee unlocks a warmer clime. 

The toil 
Of dropping buckets into empty wells, 
And growing old in drawing nothing up. 

He hopes to merit heaven by making earth a hell. 

It comes either from weakness or guiltiness to fear shadows. 

I can see that Mrs. Grant is anxious for her not finding Mans- 
field dull as winter comes on. 

Some people never will distinguish between predicting an eclipse 
and conspiring to bring it on. 

Returning were as tedious as go o'er. 

I don't wonder at people's giving him to me for a lover. 

The brazen throat of war had ceased to roar. 

There the wicked cease from troubling. 

Leaves have their time to fall, and flowers to wither at the 
north-wind's breath. 

Music hath charms to soothe the savage breast. 



226 INFINITIVE AND PARTICIPLE. [chap. 

None knew her but to love her; 

None named her but to praise. 
The King's persisting in such designs was the height of folly. 
The learn'd is happy Nature to explore. 
Freedom has a thousand charms to show. 
He lies with not a friend to close his eyes. 
They gave him knowledge of his wife's being there. 
He altered much upon the hearing it. 
The loud ethereal trumpet from on high 'gan blow. 

Our cradle is the starting place ; 

Life is the running of the race. 

Man never is, but always to be, blest." 

Thus hast thou seen one world begin and end. 

We often had the traveller or stranger visit us to taste our 
gooseberry wine. 

I hope she takes me to be flesh and blood. 

I might command you to be slain for this. 

The Lord God had not caused it to rain on the earth. 

In our island the Latin appears never to have superseded the 
old Gallic speech. 

The story was by tradition affirmed to be truth. 

There 's no greater luxury in the world than being read to 
sleep. 

XXX. Participle Constructions: §§455-62. 

The neighbors, hearing what was going forward, came flocking 
about us. 

The melting Phoebe stood wringing her hands. 

Thus I found her straying in the park. 

In other hands I have known it triumphed in and boasted of 
with reason. 

I '11 have thee hanged to feed the crow. 

They set him free without his ransom paid. 

With my minstrel brethren fled, my jealousy of song is dead. 

No longer relieving the miserable, he sought only to enrich 
himself by their misery. 

Finding myself suddenly deprived of the company and pleasures 
of the town, I grew melancholy. 

To whom being going, almost spent with hunger, I am fallen 
in this offence. 

Her voice is truth, told by music ; theirs are jingling instru- 
ments of falsehood. 



xv.] EXERCISES. 227 

This happy night the Frenchmen are secure, 
Having all day caroused and banqueted. 

Things are lost in the glare of day 
Which I can make the sleeping see. 

The younger, who was yet a boy, had nothing striking in his 
appearance. 

Thou knowest what a thing is poverty among the fallen on 
evil days. 

The French, having been dispersed in a gale, had put back to 
Toulon. 

That arose from the fear of my cousin hearing of these matters. 

I cannot accept the notion of school-life affecting the poet to 
this extent. 

I grant that, men continuing what they are, there must be war. 

Conscience, her first law broken, wounded Res. 

She being down, I have the placing of the British crown. 
The hour concealed, and so remote the fear, 
Death still draws nearer, never seeming near. 

These injuries having been comforted externally, Mr. Pecksniff 
having been comforted internally, they sat down. 

Shame, thou looking on, would utmost vigor raise. 

Six frozen winters spent, 
Return with welcome home from banishment. 

Miss Jervois loves to sit up late, either reading or being read 
to. 

There was a good fire in the next parlor, which the company 
were about to leave, being then paying their reckoning. 



228 INTERROGATIVE AND IMPERATIVE SENTENCES. [463 



CHAPTER XVI. 

INTERROGATIVE AND IMPERATIVE SEN- 
TENCES. 

463. The only kind of sentence of which we have thus 
far treated is that by which something is asserted or de- 
clared, and which is therefore called the assertive or 
declarative sentence. 

But (as has been already more than once pointed out : 
22, 338) this is not the only kind of sentence that we use. 

Instead of making a matter the subject of assertion, we 
sometimes make it the subject of inquiry. If we want to 
know about anything, we do not need to (though we always 
may) make a statement of our want : saying, for example, 

I desire to know from you whether John is here; 

we say instead, 

is John here? 

Again, we express a command or request without put- 
ting it in the form of an assertion. Instead of saying 

I wish (or command) that you come here, 

we may say simply 

come here! 

These are fundamentally different forms of sentence, because they lack the 
assertion or predication which is the essential element of an ordinary sentence. 
Information, inquiry, command — these are the three established uses of com- 
munication between man and man, each having its own form of expression. 

THE INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE. 

464. The interrogative sentence, that by which in- 
quiry is made, differs least from the assertive, has least 
that is peculiar to itself. 



467] KINDS OF QUESTION. 229 

Like the assertive, it is made up of a subject-nominative 
and a predicate verb, each admitting all the adjuncts or 
modifiers ,that are to be found in the ordinary sentence, 
and the verb having the same variety of forms and phrases 
as there. 

The variation of the interrogative sentence from the 
assertive is of two kinds. 

465. First : if the question is as to the predication it- 
self, or whether a certain thing, which would be expressed 
by the sentence in its assertive form, is or is not true, then 
the change is simply one of arrangement, the subject being 
put after the verb instead of before it. 

Thus, for example : 

is he here? did he arrive yesterday? 

will he go to town to-morrow? 
does he take the journey for pleasure? 
has he put up at the inn? 

466. To such questions, the natural answer is the very same 

sentence in assertive form, with or without the adverb not added : 

thus, 

he is here; he did arrive yesterday; 

he will not go to town to-morrow; 

and so on. 

Or, for brevity's sake, we use the simple responsives (318), 
yes or no, the one in place of the full affirmative reply, the other 
of the negative. 

467. A variation of this kind of sentence is the alternative interroga- 
tive, by which, of two or more things thought of as possible, the one actually- 
true is sought to be known ; thus, for example, 

did he arrive yesterday, or to day? 

will he go by rail, or in his carriage? 

Here the answer is the assertion of one or of the other alternative, or the 
denial of the remaining one, or both : thus, 

he arrived yesterday; he will not go by rail, but in his carriage. 



230 INTERROGATIVE AND IMPERATIVE SENTENCES. [468- 

468. Second : if the question is as to the subject of a 
given predication, or as to its object, or any other of the 
adjuncts or modifiers either of the subject-nominative or of 
the predicate verb, then the inquiry is made by means of 
some form of the interrogative pronoun (169 etc.), or of the 
interrogative adjective (209) ; or by an interrogative ad- 
verb (313 e). 

The interrogative words are, accordingly, who (whose, whom), 
what, which (and, in old style, whether) ; where (wherefore, 
wherewith, whereby, etc.), whither, whence, when, why, how. 

Thus, for example : 
who is here? when did he arrive? 

where is he going to-morrow? at what inn will he put up? 
what does he want? 

469. The natural answer to such questions is a corresponding 
assertion, with the desired subject or object or other adjunct put 
in place of the interrogative word : thus, 

John is here; he arrived yesterday; 

he will put up at the best inn: 

and so on. 

470. As the examples show, the regular place of the in- 
terrogative word, of whatever kind, is at the beginning of 
the sentence, or as near it as possible. And then, as in the 
other kind of interrogative sentence, the subject, unless it 
be itself the interrogative word, is put after the verb. 

471. This order of arrangement, as it inverts the usual posi- 
tion of the two essential elements of the sentence, the subject- 
nominative and the verb, is called the inverted order ; or the 
sentence is said to be an inverted one. Its special use is in 
interrogation, but it is also found elsewhere. 

Thus (by a usage which has grown out of the interrogative 
one), ii#is sometimes employed in stating a condition, or in 
giving that meaning which we usually express by if. For ex- 
ample : 



474] INVERTED ORDER OF THE SENTENCE. 231 

hadst thou been here, he had not died; 
were the king dead, his son would succeed; 
none will listen, criest thou never so loud; 
instead of 

if thou hadst been here; if the king were dead; 

if (or though) thou criest never so loud. 

This is called a case of conditional inversion, or the sen- 
tence is said to he an inverted conditional sentence. 

472. The regular and usual order of the interrogative sentence 
is sometimes changed, generally with some change of meaning. 

Thus, a sentence in the assertive order is often made interroga- 
tive simply by the tone of voice in which it is uttered : for ex- 
ample, 

he is not gone yet? he will put up where? 

which may express surprise, as if 

is it possible that he is not yet gone? 

or may request the repetition of a statement not understood, 

as if 

where did you say that he put up? 

or something of the kind. 

473. The interrogative sentence, like the assertive, may he 
compound, or complex, or compound-complex, interrogative 
clauses being used instead of the independent assertive clauses 
of such sentences. But an interrogative clause cannot be de- 
pendent — except, indeed, in the case (a very rare one) of a 
dependent clause of addition (437) : thus, 

he lives at Paris — where is it possible that you have never been? 

THE IMPERATIVE SENTENCE. 

474. The imperative sentence, expressing a command or 
requirement, has for it's characteristic a special form or 
mode of the verb, namely the imperative mode (233), 
which takes the same adjuncts or modifiers as any of the, 
other verbal forms. 



232 INTERROGATIVE AND IMPERATIVE SENTENCES. [474- 

The imperative is not in our present English marked by a dis- 
tinct inflection or other sign; it is always the same with the 
simple infinitive, or the root of the verb : thus, 

give, love, be, go, do, have. 

For the imperative, as for the other modes, are made em- 
phatic, progressive, and passive verb-phrases : thus, 

love: do love, be loving, be loved; 
go: do go, be going, be gone; 

An emphatic imperative-phrase is made even from be ; thus, 
do be still ; do not be gone long. 

But the imperative has no different tense-forms or tense- 
phrases ; and it is the same in the singular as in the plural. 

475. As a command strictly implies that the person 
commanding speaks directly to the person or persons com- 
manded, the real imperative is only of the second person. 

And as, in such direct address, a pronoun designating 
the persons addressed is rather unnecessary, the imperative 
is generally used without any subject. If a subject is 
expressed (compare 479), it is put after the verb. Thus, 

bring roses, pour ye wine; repine thou not at thy lot; 

come here and be washed; do not leave us so soon. 

476. The imperative sentence (like the interrogative, 473) 
may have the same variety of construction as the assertive, 
being compound, complex, and so on. But an imperative clause 
can be dependent only when it is simply additive (437) : thus, 

he will be here to-morrow, when please call again; 
it is at the tenth page, which see. 

477. Another mode of expression, made with a kind of im- 
perative auxiliary, let, is much used in order to intimate a wish 
or direction in the third person, and even in the first,: thus, 

let me give, let us give; 

let him give, let them give; 



479] OPTATIVE EXPRESSIONS. 233 

let us stand faithfully together; 

let the drums be beaten ; 

let the messenger set out at once. 

This is so common that it seems to us to supply the place of 
the missing first and third persons of the imperative mode ; and 
it is properly to be regarded and described as an imperative 
verb-phrase. 

Here the let is plainly a real imperative, and the give etc. an infinitive, to 
which the intervening pronoun or noun stands in the relation of objective sub- 
ject (449), just as in make him go, see him give, and the like. Lei him give lit- 
erally means ' allow him to give,' or ' cause that he give.' 

478. But the proper imperative is by no means the only 
form of expression by which a speaker signifies a command or 
demand, or seeks to control or to influence the action of another. 

The same thing is done by assertive expressions like 

•» 
thou shalt go; you must give; 

which are in themselves simple statements that there exists a necessity for such 
and such action on the part of the person addressed ; and, of course, the same 
statement, with something of the same imperative meaning, may be made in 
the third person, or even in the first. 

479. The direct command of the imperative, moreover, shades 
off into expressions of more or less forcible or imperative wish, 
or desire, or imprecation. 

In these senses, the present subjunctive is much used, especially in antique 
and poetic style and in certain established phrases : thus, 

part we in friendship from your land; 

be we bold and make despatch ; 

some heavenly power guide us hence; 

thy will be done; the Lord bless thee; 

well, then, be it so; perish the thought. 

This is called the optative use of the subjunctive {optative means 'ex- 
pressing option or wish '). It is limited to the first and third persons — unless, 
indeed (which would be correct enough), we regard the proper imperative, 
when it has its subject expressed, as being rather* an optative subjunctive. 

As the examples show, the subject always follows the verb in the first person, 
and may either precede or follow (more often the latter) in the third. 

The preterit subjunctive has also sometimes an optative sense, but only in 
incomplete expression (501). 



234 INTERROGATIVE AND IMPERATIVE SENTENCES. [480-481 

480. In ordinary speech, instead of the optative subjunctive we generally 
use the verb may as optative auxiliary", always putting the subject after it. 
Thus, for example, 

may I retain your friendship; may we part in peace; 

may some heavenly power guide us hence; may the thought perish; 

may there be no ill-will between us. 

With such phrases, the imperative verb-phrase with let (477) is generally 
equivalent in meaning and interchangeable. 

THE EXCLAMATORY INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE. 

481. The interrogative pronouns and adjective who and what 
(not which, nor whether), and the interrogative adverbs (espe- 
cially how), are often used in an exclamatory sense — that is, 
to make an exclamation, expressing some strong feeling, such as 
surprise, admiration, disapprobation. Thus, for example, 

what a sad sight was this! how are the mighty fallen! 
who would ever have believed it! 

Such are to be called exclamatory sentences in the interroga- 
tive form. 

The form may also be that of a dependent clause : thus, 

what a sad sight this was! how the mighty are fallen! 

But this is an instance of incomplete expression : as if it were 
see what a sad sight this was! it is strange, how the mighty are fallen! 
It belongs, then, like the optative preterit, in the next chapter (501). 



EXERCISES TO CHAPTER XVI. 

ON INTERROGATIVE AND IMPERATIVE SENTENCES. 

Thus far we have had (except in here and there an exceptional in- 
stance) only assertive sentences to describe, and have had no need to 
define them as being such ; but after this, in taking up any sentence, 
we have to tell first of all whether it is an assertive, an interrogative, 
or an imperative sentence (or, if the instructor prefers, only one of the 



chap, xvi.] EXERCISES. 235 

last two kinds is to be defined as such, it being understood otherwise 
that the sentence is of the first kind, assertive). Then we may pro- 
ceed to analyze it and parse its members according to the methods 
which have been followed hitherto. An interrogative sentence may 
be re-arranged in the assertive order, and divided into subject and 
predicate. But an imperative sentence without an expressed subject 
cannot be so treated. If we have, for example, the sentence 

give me that book, 

we must say that it is an imperative sentence, composed of the im- 
perative verb giv-3 (with its adjuncts), used without a subject, for the 
purpose of giving a command to the person or persons addressed. 

An inverted conditional clause (471) should be defined as such; 
and also an inverted optative clause (479); other cases of inverted 
order (as in said he, never will I consent, great is Diana) do not 
call for particular notice, unless the general subject of the order of 
words in the sentence is taken up — which is not attempted in this 
work. 

XXXI. Miscellaneous examples. 

So Heaven decrees ; with Heaven who can contest ? 

Peace ! what can tears avail ? 

Lives there who loves his pain ? 

What need a man forestall his date of grief? 

Who is here so rude that -would not be a Roman ? 

What proof, alas ! have I not given of love ? 

What fear we then ? what doubt we to incense his utmost ire ? 

I ask you : are you innocent or guilty ? 

Had I not four or five women once that tended me? 

What cause withholds you then to mourn for him? 

Whether of them twain did the will of his father ? 

Wherewith shall a young man cleanse his way? 

Will you permit that I shall stand condemned? 

Feelest thou not, O world, the earthquake of his chariot thun- 
dering up Olympus? 

For what intent have ye sent for me hither ? 

Shall the thing formed say to him that formed it : why hast 
thou made me thus? 

Hearken ! he speaketh yet ; 
O friend, wilt thou forget — 
Friend more than brother — 



236 INTERROGATIVE AND IMPERATIVE SENTENCES, [chap. xvi. 

How hand in hand we Ve gone, 
Heart with heart linked in one, 
All to each other? 

They leave us the dangers, the repulses — which how long will 
you bear ? 
Awake ! arise ! or be forever fallen. 

And see, he cried, the welcome, 
Fair guests, that waits you here. 

Curse not thy foeman now; 
Mark on his pallid brow 
Whose seal is set. 

Lochiel ! Lochiel ! beware of the day 

When the Lowlands shall meet thee in battle array. 

Be aye sticking in a tree, Jack ; it '11 be growing while ye 're 
sleeping. 
Eat thou not the bread of him that hath an evil eye. 

O make her a grave where the sunbeams rest, 
When they promise a glorious morrow. 

Reap we not the ripened wheat, 
Till yonder hosts are flying. 

Let me not forget what I have gained from their own mouths. 

Let us go round, and let the sail be slack, the course be slow. 

Let the waters under the heaven be gathered together, and let 
the dry land appear. 

The bridegroom cometh ; go ye out to meet him. 

To a solemn feast I will invite young Simon Calymath — where 
be thou present. 

Vex not thou the poet's mind. 

The Lord judge between thee and me. 

Green be the turf above thee. 

May'st thou find with Heaven the same forgiveness as with thy 
father here! 

How wonderful is Death, Death and his brother Sleep I 

How sleep the brave, that sink to rest 
By all their country's wishes blest ! 

Had I a daughter worthy of such a husband, he should have 
such a wife. 

Wast thou a monarch, me wouldst thou make thy queen ? 

Is my young master a little out of order, the question is : " What 
will my dear eat?" 



482-484] INCOMPLETE SENTENCES. 237 



CHAPTER XVII. 

ABBREVIATED AND INCOMPLETE EXPRES- 
SION. 

482. A sentence or a clause is complete when it has its 
own subject and its own predicate, both given in full. 

But we often express ourselves by sentences which are 
not complete, but lack more or less of the regular structure 
of a sentence ; and we have now to look at some of the 
principal cases of this mode of expression. 

483. Sentences are rendered incomplete chiefly by ab- 
breviation — that is to say, they are made shorter or 
"briefer (hence the name), by omitting parts which it seems 
to us unnecessary to express, because, either through the 
connection or in some other way, the meaning is well 
enough understood without them. 

A part of the sentence which is thus omitted, because the 
mind understands it to be there, or understands the sentence as 
if it were there, without needing to express it, is said to be 
understood. And the omission is often called an ellipsis 
(which is a Greek word for i leaving out'). 

484. The abbreviation of sentences, in one or another way, 
is made in all styles of speaking and writing, and in sentences 
of every kind. But it is especially common, 1. in familiar col- 
loquial speech and in conversation, because there the mutual 
understanding of speaker and hearer, and the aid of tone and 
gesture, do much to fill out the expression ; and 2. in lively 
and picturesque, and especially in impassioned or emotional 
speech, because there it is sought to impress the mind more 
strongly by putting before it only the emphatic or most im- 
portant ideas. 



238 ABBREVIATED AND INCOMPLETE EXPRESSION. [485- 

485. The simplest and commonest kind of abbreviation, 
which is used in almost every sentence we make, is that by 
which, when two or more co-ordinate clauses following one 
another would be made up in part by repeating the same 
words, these words are omitted in all but one, and left 
to be understood, or supplied from the connection, in the 
others. 

Thus, for example, in the following sentences we should 
usually leave out the words which are put in brackets : 

he is present, she [is] absent; 
he is present, she [is] not [present]; 
I am well, [I am] not sick; 

I have sormthing to sing, [I have something to] say; 
these are dark [woods, these are] gloomy [woods, these 
are] unfrequented woods. 

486. Then, as we more often connect the clauses together by 
means of conjunctions when they are fully expressed, so we also 
make great use of conjunctions in connecting the fragments of 
them that remain when the unnecessary repetitions are omitted : 
thus, for example, 

I am not sick, but well ; 
he is good, and handsome, and clever; 
or he is good, handsome, and clever; 

I have something to sing or say. 

By this means, conjunctions, which are originally con- 
nectives of clauses only, have come to be, on a very large 
scale, connectives of words or phrases which are co-ordinate 
— that is to say, which have the same office or construction 
with one another — in a single clause. 

And we have seen (327) that words of all the parts of speech, and in con- 
structions of every kind — subjects, predicate verbs, objects, qualifying words, 
prepositions, and so on — are thus bound together by conjunctions within the 
limits of one clause. 



488] COMPOUND MEMBERS OF A SENTENCE. 239 

487. As Ave call a sentence compound when it is made 
up of two or more co-ordinate clauses, usually connected 
together by conjunctions (418-19), so we call any member 
of a sentence or clause a compound member or element 
when it is made up of two or more co-ordinate words 
(usually bound together by conjunctions). 

Thus, we have a compound subject in 

friends and foes rushed through together; 
a compound predicate adjective in 

they were lovely and pleasant in their lives; 
a compound prepositional connective in 

he was seen both before and after the battle; 
a compound adverb-phrase in 

he was seen before the battle but not after it; 
and so on. 

We should never think of calling the sentence itself compound because any of 
its less essential members, any adjunct or modifier eithei of the subject or of 
the predicate verb, is compound ; nor, in general, if the subject itself is com- 
pound ; nor even if the predicate-verb is compound, provided the sentence is 
brief and not complicated, as in 

he [went] and I went; I went and [I] came; 

he [went] and I went, and [he came and I] came, 

(here the words in brackets show what would be added to make the expression 

complete). But in 

I arose, after a long and refreshing sleep, at six o'clock this morning, while 
the dew was shining on the grass, and, having made my toilet and de- 
spatched a hasty breakfast, went out into my orchard to see what damage 
yesterday's gale might have done to my fruit-trees, 

it would doubtless be practically better to regard the omitted subject I as 

understood before went, and to describe the sentence as compound. The verb, 

the word of assertion, is the essential element, above all others, of a sentence ; 

and it is perfectly proper to hold that there are as many sentences (or clauses) 

as there are verbs in anything we say. 

488. The co-ordinating conjunction and is used far oftener 
than all the other conjunctions together in thus compounding 
the elements of sentences. And so distinctly do we feel that it 



240 ABBREVIATED AND INCOMPLETE EXPRESSION. [488- 

binds together into one the words composing a compound ele- 
ment that, as has been seen above (348 e), the verb belonging 
to a subject so compounded is made plural, as if it had a plural 
subject. 

There are also other ways in which we make by means of and combinations 
which cannot be taken apart into single clauses : for example, 

we thought Tom and Dick and Harry a noisy trio; 
three and eighteen make one-and-twenty. 

Such combinations with any other conjunction are only rare and irregular. 

489. But even the subordinating conjunctions are sometimes 
used to join a mere word or phrase which represents an abbrevi- 
ated dependent clause to that on which the clause would depend : 

thus, 

it is important if true; 

are you mad? if not, speak to me; 

though often forbidden, he kept coming; 

he fell while bravely defending the flag; 

let them, when well again, return to duty: 

that is, if it is true; though he was forbidden; when they are 

well : and so with the rest. 

It is only the verb be, the simple Copula between a subject and predicate 
word (353 a), along with a subject which is the same with that of the other 
clause, that can be left out thus, to abbreviate the expression. And, in all 
such cases, the fact of an ellipsis, or an omission of what might be and more 
often is expressed, is much more distinctly present to our minds than when we 
abbreviate by means of and or or or but and the like. 

490. It is by the same simple and obvious kind of abbrevia- 
tion — namely, by leaving out parts of the sentence which are 
so clearly understood from the connection that it would be mere 
wasteful repetition to express them — that in question and an- 
swer a word or two often stands for a whole sentence, short or 
long. 

Thus, if one asks 

who broke in through the window, and did all this mischief 

in the room? 

it is quite enough to reply 

Jack, 



492] QUESTION AND ANSWER. 241 

without repeating the whole story of what Jack did. Or, if one 
says 

you need not expect to see me at school to-morrow, 

the return-question 

why? 

and the answer, 

because I am going out of town, 

both imply repetitions of the first statement ; but these need 
only to be implied, and not actually made. 

So also we very often repeat, in the form of an abbreviated 
question, a statement just made, in the way of asking for assur- 
ance as to the truth of the statement : thus, 

so they are off already, are they? 

you do not believe it, do you? 

we may be sure, may we not, that he will not betray us? 

In all such cases, if we are to parse the words or clauses, we must supply the 
ellipsis, or add the expression of the parts which are only understood. 

The responsives (318), 

yea or yes, nay or no, 

are originally adverbs, the one meaning 'certainly' or 'to be sure' (which we 
often use instead), the other meaning ' not,' and each stands by abbreviation 
for a sentence in which it had the office of an adverb ; but they are now complete 
answers by themselves, and no longer imply any ellipsis, because we have 
come to use them only in this way, and never combine them with other words 
to make complete sentences. 

491. By a like desire to avoid unnecessary repetition, we 
sometimes let a relative word represent alone the whole clause 
which it would have introduced : thus, 

he has been gone all day, no one knows where; 

I cannot come, and I will tell you why; 

one of you must give way, I do not care which: 

that is, where he has gone; which gives way: and so on. 

We have noticed under Adjectives (203) the frequent and familiar omission 
of the noun qualified by an adjective, when it is readily to be supplied from the 
connection. 

492. The infinitive or participle of a repeated verh-phrase is 
very often omitted, and the auxiliary left alone to represent the 
phrase : thus, for example, 

he has never seen it, but I have; I will join them if you will; 
da you promise me? I do. 



242 ABBREVIATED AND INCOMPLETE EXPRESSION. [492- 

In easy colloquial speech, even a repeated infinitive is represented by its sign 

fo alone : as, 

he would not go, though I told him to; 

you may stay, if you want t o j 

but this is not allowed in careful style, nor in writing. 

493. To save the burdensome repetition of nouns, we have 
(33) the pronouns as brief and much-used substitutes. In a 
similar way, the pronominal adverb so is a very frequent substi- 
tute for a word (oftenest an adjective) or phrase or clause used 
as complement of a verb : thus, for example, . 

he is either married or going to be so; 

I thought that he could be trusted, but I think so no longer; 
if he is not already tired of waiting for us, this last delay will 
certainly make him so. 

And do is an almost equally frequent substitute for a verb 
that needs to be repeated : thus, 

sleep seldom visits sorrow; when it doth, it is a comforter; 
embrace me, as I do thee; 
I love her better than he does. 

494. It is because comparison naturally involves parallelism 
or repetition of expression that the conjunctions of comparison, 
as and than, and especially as, have come to be followed very 
frequently by abbreviated and incomplete expression (as already 
pointed out, 330 d) : thus, for example (adding in brackets the 
words which may be supplied as understood), 

she is as good as he [is] ; 

she was as handsome as [she] ever [was] ; 

he put it off as long as [putting it off was] possible; 

love thy neighbor as [thou lovest] thyself; 

I treat him as [I treat] a friend; 

I regard it as [I regard a thing] possible. 

Starting with such abbreviated constructions as the last two, as has come to 
be used as a kind of appositive connective, and even to take on the meaning of 
'in the light of ? ' ' in t]ie character of ' ; so that we make such phrases as 

he gained great fame as an orator; his fame as orator was great; 



495] COMPARATIVE CLAUSES. 243 

where it would be by no means easy to fill out the ellipsis in such a way as 
should give as its proper meaning. 

Often, before a conditional clause, a whole clause of compari- 
son, involving a repetition, is omitted after as : thus, 

he looks as [he would look] if he were tired; 
I would thank her as [I should thank her] if she had done me a 
great favor. 

This omission is so common, that as if has come to seem to us a compound 
conjunction or conjunction-phrase of comparison, and we are quite unconscious 
of the ellipsis really implied in it. As though is used in the same sense ; while, 
if the ellipsis were filled out, though could hardly ever begin the conditional 
clause. 

Even the conditional clause itself may be abbreviated (489), making, for 

example, 

he looks as if tired. 

By a kindred abbreviation, we change 

you must so act as one acts in order to win approbation 
into 

you must act so as to win approbation ; 

and this has become, its origin being unthought of by us, one of the common 
constructions of the infinitive (450 b). 

Once more, we frequently form sentences like these : 

my friends, poor as they are, are above being bought; 

all unarmed as he may be, he will disdain to fly; 

where the adjectives poor and unarmed are in appositive construction, qualify- 
ing the subjects of the independent clauses, friends and he — as if it were being 
as poor as they actually are, and so on. But such a clause comes to appear to 
us equivalent to however poor they are, or though they are poor; and then, by 
analogy with them, we form others which involve marked abbreviations : thus, 

for example, 

poor as they are, you cannot buy them ; 

valiantly as he may fight, they will beat him; 

where an absolute construction is implied : thus, 

they being as poor as they are; he fighting as valiantly etc. 

or, again, 

much as I love you, I love honor more; 

where the appositive adjective is omitted : thus, 

I, loving you as much as I love you, love honor more. 

495. ]^ot only, however, where the completion of the ex- 
pression would involve an unnecessary and avoidable repetition 
of something actually said close by, but also where the common 



244 ABBREVIATED AND INCOMPLETE EXPRESSION. [495- 

usages of speech are such as to show plainly enough what is 
meant, we often take the liberty of omitting something. 

Thus, we may have a subordinate member of the sentence omitted, as in 

he is fifteen [years old], and tall of his age; 

it is a quarter after six [o'clock] ; 

I shall leave on the twenty-third [day of the month] ; 

yours [your letter] of yesterday is received ; 

stop at the baker's [shop] on the way; 

we visited St. Peter's [church] last summer. 

Or, we may have the more essential parts, the subject or the verb, or even 
both, omitted. 
Thus, the subject is omitted in certain current phrases : as, 

thank you ! prithee (that is, I pray thee) ; 

would that he were here! bless you! confound the fellow! 

Also, in diary style : as, 

went to church yesterday; heard a fine sermon; mean to go again next Sunday. 
In the second person singular, in poetic and antique style : as, 

hast heard? why dost stare so? 

In expressions like 
do what we will, work as hard as we may, we yet accomplish nothing; 
fordo we (that is, let us do), and so on. 

In comparative phrases, an indefinite subject after as or than (compare 494) : 
thus, 

I will come as early as is possible; 

the day was fairer than was usual at that season. 

Again, the verb be, the copula (353 a) is sometimes omitted — oftenest be- 
fore a predicate noun or adjective, and in a question : thus, 

why all this noise here? you a soldier? 

futile the effort ; hence these tears. 

Examples of the omission of both subject and predicate verb, only a subordi- 
nate member of the sentence remaining, are 

[I wish you a] good morning, ladies; 

[I drink to] your health, sir; 

[I give you] many thanks for your kindness; 

waiter, [hand me] a clean plate ; 

[It is] agreed ! [give me] your hand upon it. 

A verb of motion is often omitted in commands, being made unnecessary by 
an adverb or preposition : thus, 

up and away! off with you! 



498] ABBREVIATION FOR IMPRESSIVENESS. 245 

496. What and how, followed by if and though, sometimes represent 
whole clauses : thus, 

what though she be a slave! how if the sky were to fall? 

that is, what matter is it, how would it be, or the like. 
So not, in such sentences as 

not that I was ever afraid of him, 

is the remnant of a clause, something like I would not say, or it is not the 
case. And the related expression, 

not but that I might have gone if I had chosen, 
we should, in order to parse it, have to fill up into some such form as 
I would not say anything but that I etc. 
Compare the somewhat similar abbreviation with but, noticed in 187. 

497. The so which we use so liberally in all styles, but especially in 
mawkish and affected speech, in sentences like 

I am so glad to see you, it was so dreadful, 

makes the expression really incomplete, because it distinctly implies a compari- 
son, of which the other member, a dependent clause introduced by as or that, 
is left unexpressed. 
Well-established usage authorizes such expressions as 

he says I have wronged him; but, so far from that, I have done him 
all the good in my power, 

where the meaning is but I am so far from that, that I have etc. ; but the form 
without so, namely, 

but, far from that, I have etc., 

is both more logical and less cumbrous. 

498. It was noticed above (484) that not economy alone, 
but often impressiveness also, is sought to be attained by abbre- 
viation. In the haste and heat of feeling, we throw aside our 
usual elaborate mode of calm expression, by assertion or state- 
ment, by putting together a subject and a predicate, and bring 
forth only that part of the sentence which most strongly affects 
our mind, or which we wish to have most strongly affect the 
mind of another. 

Hence all emotional expression tends strongly to incomplete- 
ness ; the exclamatory sentence is apt to be a defective one. 
And any admixture of feeling adds to the readiness with which 
we resort to the various modes of abbreviation. 
Some of the commoner cases of this may well be noticed here. 



246 ABBREVIATED AND INCOMPLETE EXPRESSION. [499- 

499. Along with an interjection we often put a word or phrase pointing 
out more distinctly the kind of emotion we feel, or the occasion of it : thus, 

O horrible! and oh, the difference to me! 

alas, my unhappy country! lo, the poor Indian! 

ah, the pity of it! fie, the lazy fellow! 

pooh, nonsense ! pshaw, how absurd ! 

But quite as often the occasion of the feeling is itself made an exclamation of, 
without any interjection added, the tone and gesture showing plainly enough 
what the feeling is. 

Occasionally, as if the interjection were an assertion instead of a mere sign of 
the feeling intended to be intimated, a preposition is used to combine it with 
the added explanation : thus, 

O for a lodge in some vast wilderness ! 
fie on you ! alas for Troy ! 

as if it were I long for a lodge, I cry shame upon you, I grieve for Troy. 

500. A number of our ordinary words are so commonly used in incomplete 
exclamatory expression that they have almost won the character of interjections. 
Such are the interrogative words, 

why, how, what ; 

with many others, of which the following are examples : 

well, indeed, hark, behold, hail, help, 
silence, quick, away, out, back, to arms. 

501. Dependent clauses are often used in an* exclamatory 
way, with omission of the main clause on which they should 
depend — this being sometimes replaced by an interjection. 

" Thus, for example : 

that he were here with us ! 
had we but known of it in time ! 

if you had only seen her in her glory! 

as if I could be guilty of such meanness! 

alas that he should have proved so false! 

what a pleasant day it has been ! , 

how clear and bracing the air is ! 

as if the construction were 

1 would that he were here; 

it were well if you had seen her; 
observe how clear the air is ; 

and so with the rest. 

Such may be called exclamatory clauses in the dependent form. 

502. As the imperative and optative modes of expression shade into one 
another (479), so both are nearly related with the exclamatory ; and hence the 



504] INTEEJECTIONAL PHRASES. 247 

question may often arise whether a given sentence or part of a sentence is best 
viewed as the one or as the other— just as it may sometimes be questioned 
whether a sentence is more interrogative or exclamatory. 

There is a certain relationship between the vocative or nominative of ad- 
dress in the noun (141), the imperative or mode of direct* command in the 
verb, and the interjection or word of direct intimation of feeling. The first 
and last stand equally outside the structure of the sentence, and the imperative 
usually rejects a subject ; and the three variously accord in their practical uses. 

503. For the sake of stimulating attention, or of giving force and impres- 
siveness to what we say, or of softening what might seem too positive or blunt, 
or for other such purposes, we are apt in familiar colloquial style to throw in or 
interject into our sentences little phrases which form no real j:art of what we 
are saying, and stand in no grammatical connection with it, and which are also 
like interjections in that their chief purpose is to intimate our states of feeling. 

Sometimes these are complete independent clauses : as, 

you know; you see ; I tell you; 

I declare or fancy or guess or calculate ; 
and sometimes they are incomplete, or mere fragments of sentences : as, 

to be sure; as it were; so to speak; 

by your leave; if I may say so. 

We may call them, then, interactional phrases. 

The whole catalogue of asseverations and oaths are of this character. Thus, 

for example, 

by Jove 

strictly means 1 1 swear by Jupiter,' and would be, if used seriously, the invoca- 
tion of a divinity to attest the truth of what we are saying. And the same im- 
pulse to make our expression more forcible by putting into it a strong word or 
two, something that seems to imply feeling or passion, leads occasionally to the 
insertion of absurd bits of phrases, which it would be in vain to try to build up 
into sentences : thus, for example, 

who the mischief can have done this? 
what in thunder are you here for? 

It is not easy to avoid slang and inelegance with even the most moderate use 
of the most innocent interjectional phrases ; and they shade rapidly off into 
what is coarse or profane. 

504. It is a common consequence of abbreviation that words 
change their grammatical character, and come to be of a different 
class, or a different part of speech, from what they were before. 

Thus, for example, in 

he kept himself quiet, he got himself appointed, 

keep and get have their proper value as transitive verbs, while the adjectives 



248 ABBREVIATED AND INCOMPLETE EXPRESSION. [504- 

quiet and appointed are objective predicates (369), qualifying their respective 
objects. But now in familiar style we have shortened the expressions to 

he kepi quiet ; he got appointed ; 

and so have made the verbs intransitive, equivalents of continued and became 

— which last, like others of our verbs originally transitive or reflexive, has 

undergone a like change of construction. 

Again, along (for on long) is originally an adverb-phrase, like on high and 

in vain, made into an adverb — like abroad and afar, which have always 

remained adverbs only. But, like above and among, and many other like 

adverbs, along came early to be used as a preposition also ; and it was used in 

such phrases as along the side of anything. Then a further abbreviation and 

change made over the adverb-phrase along the side into a compound adverb, 

as in 

his ship lay alongside of ours ; 

and this, finally, by omission of the following of, became what we have to call 
a preposition : as in 

he laid his vessel alongside the enemy's. 

Because, in like manner, is for by cause — that is, 'by reason' — as beside 
is for by the side. We have not, indeed, turned because, like beside (for ex- 
ample, in beside himself), into a preposition, but always use a connective 
between it and a following noun, as in 

we stayed in, because of the storm; 

just as we should say by reason of the storm. But between it and a following 
clause we have learned to leave out, by abbreviation, the words of connection, 
and so have turned it into a conjunction : thus, 

we stayed in, because it was stormy; 

where the complete expression would be 

because of the fact that it was stormy. 

So the conjunction for is originally the same word with fore; and the 

clause, for example, 

for it was stormy, 

is by abbreviation from before (that is to say, 'in front or in view of) the fact 
that it was stormy. 

We have already noticed this mode of conversion of adverbs and prepositions, 
and even other parts of speech, into conjunctions (331), and have seen that 
it is still going on, since a part of the English-speaking people are in the act of 
changing directly from adverb to conjunction, by abbreviating the construction 
in which it is used (330 a). 

505. These are only some (including the more usual and 
regular) of the ways in which English expression is abbreviated, 
with the result in part to give a new character to words, in part 



507] CHANGE OF GRAMMATICAL CHARACTER. 249 

to make incomplete or elliptical sentences, which have to be 
filled np in order to be described and parsed. 

It may often fairly be made a question whether we shall 
supply an ellipsis, declaring a certain Word or words to be 
understood, or whether we shall take the sentence just as it 
stands, regarding the mode of expression as so usual that the 
mind, even on reflection, is unconscious of the absence of any- 
thing that should be there. 

Thus, it would be quite absurd to fill out a phrase in which for was used as 
conjunction to the form (as explained just above) out of which its use as con- 
junction grew ; but we may either treat as if as a conjunction-phrase or fill in 
the clause which (494) the as really represents. 

506. But our words also change sometimes, more or less, 
their grammatical character, simply by our coming to apprehend 
in a new way the expressions in which they are used. 

Thus, we have observed already (189) the formation of the reciprocal pronoun- 
phrases one another and each other by our losing sight of the original difference 
of construction between the two pronouns composing them ; also (289) the 
great shift of meaning of the passive participle when used with the auxiliary 
have to make "perfect" tenses ; and other like cases. 

So, further, the use of both and either or neither and whether as conjunc- 
tions, correlative to a following and and or or nor, is by derivation from their 
value as pronouns, by a changed understanding of such sentences as these : 
I saw both — [namely] John and William; 
either [one of us] — he or I — must give way; 
he knows whether \i. e. which of the two] — this or that — is true. 

So, once more, than is only then, with a changed office ; this is better than 
that means originally this is better, then (that is, 'next after it ') that. 

507. In part by abbreviation, in part by other changes of 
construction and of the value of words, every language has many 
modes of expression which are exceptional, unlike its ordinary 
combinations — phrases and sentences which if taken literally 
would not mean what we use them to mean, or which puzzle us 
when we attempt to analyze and explain them. 

Such irregular expressions are called idioms (from a Greek 
word meaning 'peculiarity'). Their production is a part of 
that constant change of language (7) which is often called its 
"growth." In order really to account for them, we need 



250 ABBREVIATED AND INCOMPLETE EXPRESSION. [508 

especially a knowledge of the history of our language. The 
present usages of any tongue we cannot fully understand with- 
out knowing something of its past usages, out of which these 
have grown ; and often a great deal of study, and a comparison 
of other languages, is required for settling difficult points. 

The branch of study which attempts this, which traces out 
the history of words and phrases, and shows how they come to 
be used as they are, is called etymology — or, in a more general 
way, historical grammar; and, when carried on upon a wide 

Scale, COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 

508. Hence, to expect young scholars, who have not studied the English 
language in its earlier forms, to explain the real difficulties of English construc- 
tion, is in a high degree unreasonable ; nor should such matters be brought 
before then] at all until they have gained a thorough and familiar knowledge 
of the usual and regular constructions. 



EXERCISES TO CHAPTER XVII. 

ON ABBREVIATED AND INCOMPLETE EXPRESSION. 

We have now one further question to ask, in taking up a sentence : 
namely, whether it is an incomplete one. If it is, it should be 
defined as such, and those words should be added which are necessary 
in order to enable us to parse it. 

XXXII. Miscellaneous examples. 

Wild ambition loves to slide, not stand. 

Favors to none, to all she smiles extends ; 

Oft she rejects, but never once offends. 
As night to stars, woe lustre gives to man. 
We have no slaves at home ; then why abroad ? 
God is thy law, thou mine. 

His life will be safe, his possessions safe, his rank safe. 
Death but entombs the body ; life, the soul. 
Not simple conquest, triumph is his aim. 
Prayers and tears have moved me, gifts could never. 
Patriots have toiled, and in their country's cause bled nobly. 



chap, xvii.] EXERCISES. 251 

Ruin from man is most concealed when near. 
If rich, they go to enjoy ; if poor, to retrench ; if sick, to re- 
cover ; if studious, to learn. 

Take the terms the lady made 
Ere conscious of the advancing aid. 

I will not fight against thee unless compelled. 

Whate'er the motive, pleasure is the mark. 

This apparent exception, when examined, will be found to con- 
firm the rule. 

Thou madest man, he knows not why ; 
He thinks he was not born to die. 

Why am I beaten? — Dost thou not know ? — Nothing, sir, but 
that I am beaten. — Shall I tell you why? — Aye, sir, and where- 
fore. 

I staggered a few paces, I know not whither. 

To dally much with subjects mean and low 
Proves that the mind is weak, or makes it so. 

It touches you, my lord, as much as me. 

They loved him not as a king, but as a party leader. 

Beauty's tears are lovelier than her smile. 

He looked as though the speed of thought were in his limbs. 

Kings should groan for such advantages; but we, humbled as 
we are, should yearn for them. 

Grovel in the dust ! crouch ! wild beast as thou art ! 

Much as he loved his wealth, he loved his children better. 

His nose, large as were the others, bore them down into insig- 
nificance. 

Come, you at least were twenty when you married ; that makes 
you forty. 

At thirty, man suspects himself a fool. 

Before ten his senses were gone. 

Had seen thee sooner, lad, but had to see the hounds kennelled 
first. 

How dost ? and how hast been these eighteen months ? 

Wilt take thy chance with me ? 

Sure of that ? — Very sure. 

Short his career, indeed, but ably run. 

And what its worth, ask death-beds ; they can tell. 

How various his employments whom the world calls idle I 
His lord's commands he ne'er withstood, 
Though small his pleasure to do good. 



252 ABBREVIATED AND INCOMPLETE EXPRESSION. 

Why this so rare ? Because forgot of all the day of death. 
And what if I call my servants, and give thee to their charge ? 

What though the places of their rest 
No priestly knee hath ever pressed? 

Men in their loose unguarded hours they take; 
Not that themselves are wise, but others weak. 

Not but they thought me worth a ransom, but they were not 
safe when I was there. 
How blessings brighten as they take their flight ! 
Great God ! that such a father should be mine ! 

O for that warning voice, which he who saw 
The Apocalypse heard cry in Heaven aloud ! 

Alas both for the deed and for the cause ! 

Phoebus ! what a name to fill the speaking trump of future 
fame! 

What a cold-blooded rascal it is ! 

O that I had her here, to tear her limb-meal! 

If the malignant eye of her father had seen them at the mo- 
ment ! 

How if I thrust my hand into your breast and tore your heart 
out? 

Up, Guards ! and at them ! 



INDEX. 



The references are to paragraphs. 



a or an, indefinite article, 219-21; other 
values, 221. 

a, relic of preposition, 221, 313 /, 456. 

a-, i>refix, 225 b. 

abbreviation of expression, 482-507 ', its 
purpose, 482 - 3 ; when used, 484 ; in co- 
ordinate clauses, 485-8 ; aid of conjunc- 
tions, 486-8 ; in dependent clauses, 489, 
491 ; in question and answer, 490 ; sub- 
stitution for words repeated, 492-3; 
abbreviation in clauses of comparison, 
330 d, 450 b, 494 ; omission of parts of 
sentence, 495 ; various cases, 496 - 7 ; ab- 
breviation for impressiveness, 498 ; inter- 
jectional constructions and phrases, 499- 
503 ; resulting changes of grammatical 
character and idioms, 504-8. 

ablative or "from"- case, 399. 

-able, suffix, 193 a, c. 

absolute construction of noun with ad- 
junct, 395-7, 461 ; being etc. as its aux- 
iliary, 461. 

abstract nouns, 111, 118 a ; relation of in- 
finitive to, 447. 

accent, 104. 

accessory clause — see dependent. 

accusative case, 72, 366 ; accusative-objec- 
tive, 140 : — and see objective. 

active conjugation, active voice, 301, 361. 

addition, dependent clause of, 437, 473, 476. 

adjective, definition and use, 35, 37 -9, 190- 
1 ; descriptive and limiting, 191 ; simple, 
derivative, and compound, 192-4 ; di- 
vision into classes, 195 ; adjectives of 
quality, 196-203 ; pronominal adjectives, 
204-11 ; numerals, 212-8 ; articles, 219- 
21 :— inflection of adjectives, 76, 196; 
comparison, 77-8, 197-202 :— adjective 



constructions : predicate, 40, 351 - 7 ; at- 
tributive, 373 - 4, 378 ; appositive, 376 - 
8 ; qualified by adverbs, 41, 303-9, 381 : 
— adjective used as noun, 144, 203, 315, 
322 ; as adverb, 203, 313 d ; use of noun 
as adjective, 203 ; of adverb, 203, 382 ; of 
possessive, 388 •, of prepositional phrase, 
401, 404 ; of clause, 421 : — parsing of ad- 
jectives, pp. 96 - 7. 

adjective-clause, 421, 423, 429 - 30. 

adjective-phrase, prepositional, 401, 404. 

adjuncts, of subject or predicate, -:07. 

adnominal value of possessive case, 386. 

adverb, definition and use, 41-2, 308-9, 
380-3 ; restrictions on use, 309 ; relation 
to preposition and conjunction, 310 ; di- 
vision into classes, 311 ; simple, deriva- 
tive, and compound, 312-4; compari- 
son, 79, 316 ; used as adjective, 203, 382 ; 
as object of preposition, 145, 322 ; use of 
adjective as adverb, 203, 313 d ; of prep- 
ositional phrase, 315, 402-4; of clause, 
420 ; relation of adverb to predicate ad- 
jective, 354 ; parsing of adverbs, p. 142. 

adverb-clause, 420, 423, 431-3; division 
into classes, 432. 

adverb-phrase, 315, 322, 402-4. 

adverbial object of verb, 392. 

adverbial objective construction of noun, 
390-4 ; of clause, 434/; infinitive, 448. 

adverbial predicate adjective, 355 ; partici- 
ple, 456 ; with absolute noun, 395, 406. 

adversative conjunctions, 329. 

agreement, 60 ; of verb with subject, 60, 
62, 346 ; of adjective with noun, 76 ; of 
predicate pronoun and subject, 356 - 7 ; 
and object, 371, 451 ; of appositive noun, 
379. 



254 



INDEX. 



along, alongside, 504. 

alternative conjunctions, 329. 

alternative question, 467. 

an or a, article, 219 - 221. 

-ance, suffix, 95. 

and, makes compound subject etc., 348 c, 
488. 

Anglo-Saxon, oldest English, 8. 

antecedent of a relative word, 175, 433 ; 
demonstrative as antecedent, 167. 

apposition — see appositive. 

appositive construction of noun, 375 ; of 
adjective, 376 ; of clause, 434 d ; of par- 
ticiple, 457-8; sometimes equivalent to 
dependent clause, 458-60; being as ap- 
positive auxiliary, 457. 

appositive genitive, 385 c. 

articles, 52, 195, 219 - 21. 

Aryan or Indo-European family of lan- 
guages, 3. 

as, conjunction of comparison, 330 d ; ab- 
breviated constructions with, 186, 450 &, 
494-5. 

as if, as though, conjunction-phrases, 494. 

ask, with indirect object, 365. 

assertion, made only by verb, 28, 40, 222, 
340 ; verb of mere assertion, copula, 353 a. 

assertive sentence, 22, 338 - 9, 463 ; used 
interrogatively, 472 ; imperatively, 478. 

attributive construction of adjective, 373 - 
4 ; of noun, 377 ; of participle, 455. 

auxiliary verbs, in verb-phrases, 280 - 305. 

bad and good English, 10. 

bare sentence, 25, 341-9; bare and com- 
plete predicate and subject, 30, 405-7. 

base of inflection, 87. 

be, conjugation of, 230, 234, 237, 273 ; cop- 
ula between subject and predicate noun 
or adjective, 40, 353 a ; auxiliary of pro- 
gressive verb-phrases, 281 ; of passive, 
298 - 302. 

be-, prefix, 225 6, 313 /, 504. 

because, 504. 

become, 303, 504. 

being or having been, as auxiliary of ap- 
positive construction, 457 ; of abso- 
lute, 461. 

both as conjunction, 506. 

but, elliptical constructions of, 187, 496. 



cardinal numerals, 212 - 5. 

case, in noun and pronoun, 68-75; in 
other languages, 69, 399 : — and see nomi- 
native, possessive, objective, vocative, 
dative, genitive. 

causal conjunctions, 329. 

causative derivative verbs, 96, 225 c. 

change or growth of language, 7 ; change 
of grammatical character of words, 504, 
508. 

clause, definition, 415 ; dependent and in- 
dependent, 416 - 7 ; co-ordinate, 417 - 8, 
425 ; combination of clauses into sen- 
tences, 416-28; adjective, adverb, and 
substantive clauses, 429 - 37 ; equiva- 
lence of infinitive and participle con- 
structions with clauses, 458 - 9. 

cognate object of verb, 362 a. 

collective nouns, 114 ; plural verb with, 
348 6. 

command, expression of, 22, 55, 463, 474-9. 

common nouns, 113. 

comparative conjunctions, 330 d ; their 
constructions, 330 d, 494. 

comparative degree, in adjectives and ad- 
verbs, 77 - 9, 197 - 202, 316. 

comparative philology, 507. 

comparative pronouns, 189 ; pronominal 
adjectives, 211. 

comparison of adjectives, 77-8, 197-202; 
of adverbs, 79, 316. 

complement of predicate or subject, 30, 
407. 

complete and incomplete sentence, 482 - 3. 

complete subject or predicate, 26, 30, 407. 

complex sentence, 412, 424 - 8 ; compound- 

' complex, 426-8. 

composition of words, 102 - 6. 

compound member of a sentence, 487. 

compound relative pronouns, 181 - 3 ; pro- 
nominal adjectives, 210 ; use in making 
substantive clauses, 435 a. 

compound sentence, 412, 419, 426-8 ; com- 
pound-complex, 426 - 8 ; question of 
compound sentence or clause and com- 
pound predicate, 487. 

compound words, formation of, 102-6; 
compound nouns, 117, 119; their inflec- 
tion, 130, 137 ; compound pronouns, 164, 
183 ; adjectives, 194 ; verbs, 226 ; ad- 
verbs, 314 ; prepositions, 325. 

conditional inverted clause, 471. 



INDEX. 



255 



conditional verb-phrases, 287, 290. 

conjugation of verb, 66-7, 227-307 ; Old 
and New conjugations, 239 - 75 ; pas- 
sive, 297 - 305. 

conjunction, definition and use, 47-8, 
327 ; uninfected, 79 - 80 ; relation to 
adverbs and prepositions, 310, 331, 434 ; 
co-ordinating and subordinating conjunc- 
tions and their classes, 328 - 30 ; sim- 
ple and derivative, 331 ; conjunction- 
phrases, 433 ; abbreviation by aid of con- 
junctions, 486-9, 491 ; compound mem- 
bers of sentences, 47, 327, 486-7 ; pars- 
ing of conjunctions, p. 151. 

conjunctive pronouns — see relative. 

connectives, parts of speech serving as, 
43-9, 410, 415. 

construction, meaning of, p. 62. 

continuous or progressive verb-phrases — 
see progressive. 

co-ordinate clauses, 417, 425 ; their abbre- 
viation, 485 - 8. 

co-ordinate members of a sentence, 327, 
485 - 8. 

co-ordinating conjunctions, classes, 329 ; 
use, 329, 418, 486 - 8. 

copula, be, 353 a ; its omission, 489. 

copulative conjunctions, 329. 

correlative conjunctions, 329 ; adverb and 
conjunction, 433. 

crude-form or base, 87. 

dative or dative-objective case, 139-40, 
366 - 8. 

declension, of noun and pronoun, 75 ; of 
nouns, 120-42; of pronouns, 154-60, 
166, 170, 189. 

definite article, 219. 

degrees of comparison — see comparison. 

demonstrative pronouns, 166-8 ; pronom- 
inal adjectives, 20S ; adverbs, 313 e. 

denominative derivative verbs, 225 d. 

dependent clause, 416, 420 - 8 ; co-ordinate, 
425 ; abbreviated, 489, 491, 494 ; exclama- 
tory, 481, 501 ; of addition, 437. 

derivation of one word from another, 88 - 
101, 106; by suffix, 89 - 96 ; by inter- 
nal change, 96-7 ; by transfer without 
change, 98-9 ; by prefix, 100-1. 

derivative nouns, 117-8; adjectives, 193; 
verbs, 225; adverbs, 313; prepositions, 
325 ; conjunctions, 331 ; interjections,335. 



descriptive compound nouns, 119 e ; their 
plural, 130. 

dialects of English, 9. 

diminutives (nouns), 116. 

direct and indirect object of verbs, 140, 
363-8. 

directly as conjunction, 330 a, 504. 

distributive indefinite pronouns, 189 ; pro- 
nominal adjectives, 211. 

do, auxiliary of emphatic verb-phrase, 279- 
80, 474 ; substitute for repeated verb, 
492-3. 

-dom, suffix, 96, 118 a. 

each other, 189, 506. 

-ed or -d, suffix, 95, 193 a, c, 194 c, 240. 

either and neither as conjunctions, 506. 

ellipsis, 483 ; treatment in parsing, 505. 

emotional or passionate expression, 484, 498. 

emphatic verb-phrases, 279-80, 293, 299, 
474. 

-en or -n, participial suffix, 95, 193 c, 240. 

-en, verb-making suffix, 95, 225 a, b ; ad- 
jective-making, 193 a. 

English grammar, 11 ; how and why to be 
studied, 13-5. 

English language, whence derived and 
where used, 1, 2, 5 ; its relations, 3 ; 
mixture with French etc., 4 ; changes, 
6 - 8 ; local varieties of present use, 9 - 
10 ; good and bad English, 10 ; treatment 
in grammar, 11 ; study of its history, 
106, 507. 

-er, suffix of derivative noun, 95, 118 d , e ; 
of comparative degree, 96, 193 b, 201. 

-ess, suffix, 96, 118 b. 

-est, suffix of superlative, 96, 193 6, 201. 

etymology, 507. 

exclamatory interrogative clause, 481 ; de- 
pendent, 501. 

exclamatory use of interrogative and other 
words, 173, 335, 500. 

factitive or objective predicate — see ob- 
jective. 

factitive use of verbs, 362 b, 370. 

feminine gender-noun, 115, US 6 ; pronoun, 
159-60. 

first person, 61, 153 ; pronoun of, 155-7. 

-fold, suffix, 218. 

for, conjunction, 504. 

foreign nouns, plural of, 126. 



256 



INDEX. 



form, grammatical, p. 62. 

fractional numerals, 217. 

French in English, 4. 

-fill, suffix, 91, 193 a ; same as full, 102. 

future verb-phrases, 282 - 6. 

gender in nouns, 115 ; in pronouns, 159 - 62. 

genitive or possessive case, 68 etc. (see pos- 
sessive) ; subjective, objective, and ap- 
positive, 385 ; use with infinitive in ing 
as subject, 446, 459. 

Germanic languages, related to English, 3. 

Germany, derivation of English from, 2. 

gerund, 237. 

get, 303, 504. 

good and bad English, 10. 

government, 60 ; of verb by subject, 60, 62, 
346 ; of object by verb or preposition, 
74, 320, 359, 398; of adjective by noun, 
76 ; of noun in possessive case by other 
noun, 387. 

grammar, its office, 10 - 2 ; study, 13 - 5. 

grammatical and logical subject, 163 a, 317, 
434 a, 443. 

grammatical character of a word changed 
by abbreviation or otherwise, 504-6. 

growth or change of language, 7, 507. 

had rather etc., 441 c, 450 c. 
have, auxiliary, forming "perfect" verb- 
phrases, 2SS - 9, 292, 454. 
have to, obligative, 450 d. 
-head, suffix, 118 a. 
-hood, suffix, 96, 118 a. 
how if, 496. 

-ic, suffix, 193 a. 

idioms, 507. 

imperative mode, 65, 233-4, 474 ; phrases, 
474 ; person, 475 ; let as imperative aux- 
iliary, 477 : relation to interjection and 
vocative, 502. 

imperative sentence, 22, 55, 338-9, 463, 
474-80. 

impersonal subject and object it, 163 b, 
362 c. 

impersonal verbs, 307, 348 a. 

in-, prefix, 193 d. 

incomplete expression, 482-3. 

indeclinable words, 79. 

indefinite article, 219, 221. 

indefinite numerals. 211. 



indefinite pronouns, 188-9 ; pronominal 
adjectives, 211. 

indefinite relative pronouns and adjectives, 
183, 210 ; abbreviated construction with, 
434. 

independent clause, 417. 

independent parts of speech, 36, 49. 

indicative mood, 65, 233 - 4. 

indirect object of verb, 139 - 40, 364 - 8. 

Indo-European family of languages, Eng- 
lish a member of, 3. 

-ine, suffix, 118 b. 

infinitive, verbal noun, 146, 235 - 7, 438 - 9 ; 
infinitive-phrases, 294, 439; its "sign" 
to, 237; when used or omitted, 440-1 ; 
infinitive constructions, 442-51 ; as sub- 
ject, predicate, object, 443 - 7 ; of intent 
or end, 448 ; adverbial objective, 448 ; 
with objective as subject, 449 ; with sub- 
jective genitive, 446. 

inflection, 56-7, 66-7; of verb, 59-67; 
of noun and pronoun, 58, 68-75; of ad- 
jective and adverb, 76-80; methods of 
change in inflection, 81-6; base of in- 
flection, 87 : — and see the different parts 
of speech. 

-ing, suffix, 95, 118/, 193 c, 237. 

instrumental or " with" - case, 399. 

interjection, definition and use, 50-1, 332- 
3 ; classes, 334 ; from other parts of 
speech, 335, 500 ; combination with oth- 
er words, 336, 499 ; relation to vocative 
and imperative, 502 ; parsing, p. 153. 

interj ectional phrases, 503. 

internal change, derivation by, 96-7, 225 c ; 
inflection by, 83-4, 125 a, 240, 245, 257. 

interrogative pronouns, 169-73; pronomi- 
nal adjectives, 209 ; adverbs, 313 e ; use 
in questions, 468, 470 ; exclamatory use, 
173, 481 ; use as relatives, 174. 

interrogative sentence, 22, 54, 338-9, 4G3- 
73 ; kind and answer, 464 - 9 ; arrange- 
ment, 465, 470-2 ; as dependent clause, 
473 ; exclamatory use, 481. 

intransitive verb, 223, 360- 1 ; passive from, 
305, 392 ; object taken by, 362, 370. 

invariable parts of speech, 79. 

inverted order of sentence, 471. 

irregular or Old conjugation — see Old. 

irregular verbs, list of, p. 135. 
is being etc., 299, 456. 



INDEX. 



257 



-ish, suffix, 96, 193 a, o. 

-ism, suffix, 118 a. 

-ist, suffix, 118 e. 

it, as impersonal subject or object, 163, 

348 a, 362 c ; as grammatical subject, 

163 a, 434 a, 443. 
-ize, suffix, 225 a. 

judgment, sentence expression of, 21. 

keep, 504. 

-kin, suffix, 118 c. 

language, constant change of, 7, 507 ; 

learned by its speakers, 10, 14 ; its 

study, 14 - 5 ; made up of words, 16. 
learning of language, 10, 14. 
-less, suffix, 193 a. 
let as imperative auxiliary, 477. 
-let, suffix, 96, 118 c. 
limiting force of adjective, 38 ; limiting or 

descriptive adjective, 191. 
-ling, suffix, 95-6, 118 c. 
local differences of English, 9. 
locative or " in"- case, 399. 
logical and grammatical subject, 163 a, 

317, 443, 459. 
-ly, suffix, 94, 193 a, b, 313 a, d. 

manner, adverbial objective of, 393. 

masculine gender-noun, 115 ; pronoun, 
159-60. 

may as optative auxiliary, 480. „ 

measure, adverbial objective of, 393. 

modal adverbs, 311. 

mode or mood, in verb, 65, 233 ; verb- 
phrases, 287 - 305 : — and see imperative, 
indicative, subjunctive. 

modifiers of subject or predicate, 407. 

modifying force of adjective, 38. 

mood — see mode. 

-most, superlative suffix, 202. 

multiplicative numerals, 218. 

-ness, suffix, 92, 93, 118 a. 
neuter nouns, 115; pronoun, 159-60. 
neuter verbs, 361. ' 

New conjugation, 240, 244 ; irregular verbs 

of, 246-56. 
nominative or subjective case, 72, 132, 345, 

347; nominative absolute, 395-7, 461; 

nominative of address, or vocative, 141. 
Norman- French, English mixed with, 4. 



not that and not but that, abbreviated 
expression with, 496. 

noun, definition and use, 31 - 2, 108, 112 
kinds or classes, 31, 109-19; abstract 
111 ; common and proper, 113 ; collec 
tive, 114 ; gender, 115 ; diminutive, 116 
simple, derivative, and compound, 117- 
9 ; nouns substantive and adjective, 35 
— inflection of nouns, 58, 68-75, 120- 
30, 131 - 8 ; objective case by analogy, 
74, 132; dative, 139-40, 366-8; voca- 
tive, 140 ;'noun always of third person, 
63, 141, 346 : — noun constructions : sub- 
ject, 24, 31 - 2, 341 - 2 ; object of verb, 71, 
358-68; of preposition, 44-6, 319-20, 
398; predicate, 40, .350-3; objective 
predicate, 369 ; appositive and attribu- 
tive, 372, 375, 377 ; qualifying possessive, 
384-9; adverbial objective, 390-4; 
nominative absolute, 395 - 7 : — words 
etc. used as nouns, 143-8; clauses, 
422 ; noun used as adjective, 203 ; — 
parsing of nouns, pp. 63-4. 

number, distinction of, in noun and pro- 
noun^ 58, 120-30, 154-8, 166; in adjec- 
tive, 76 ; in verb, 60, 228, 230. 

numerals, 52, 195, 212-8 ; cardinal, 212-5; 
ordinal, 216 ; fractional, 217 ; multiplica- 
tive, 218. 

object of verb, 71, 223, 358 - 68 ; of prepo- 
sition, 73, 320 ; direct and indirect ob- 
ject, 139 - 40, 363 - 8 ; impersonal, 163 5, 
362 c ; object made passive subject, 298 ; 
irregularities, 305, 392, 449. 

objective case, 72-4, 132, 151 ; adverbial 
objective, 390-4. 

objective genitive, 385 5 ; construction with 
infinitive, 446. 

objective or factitive predicate, 369 - 71 ; 
participle used as, 456. 

obligative verb-phrases, 291. 

of mine etc, 388. 

Old conjugation, 240, 257 ; classes and ir- 
regularities, 258 - 74. 

one another, 189, 506. 

optative use of subjunctive, 479 ; optative 
auxiliary may, 480. 

-or, suffix, 118 tZ. 

ordinal numerals, 216. 

-ous, suffix, 193 a. 



258 



INDEX. 



parsing, general rules for, pp. 62 - 3 ; pars- 
ing of nouns, pp. 63-4; of pronouns, 
pp. 79-81 ; of adjectives, pp. 96-7; of 
verbs, pp. 131 - 3 ; of adverbs, p. 142 ; of 
prepositions, p. 146 ; of conjunctions, p. 
151 ; of interjections, p. 153. 

participial infinitive, 237, 294, 439 ; its con- 
structions, 443 - 5 ; with subjective geni- 
tive, 446 : passive use, 456. 

participles, verbal adjectives, 235-6, 23S, 
438, 452 ; participle-phrases, 294, 452 ; 
participle constructions, 453-62; with 
auxiliaries, in verb-phrases, 281-302, 
454 ; attributive, 455 ; predicative, 456 ; 
appositive, 457 ; equivalence of this with 
certain infinitive constructions, 459-60 ; 
absolute, 461 ; substantive, 462. 

parts of speech, their definition and uses, 
19-52, their classification, 36, 43, 49; 
description, 108-336; syntactical com- 
binations, 337 - 508. 

passion or emotion, tends to incomplete 
expression, 484, 498. 

passive conjugation, verb-phrases, 297- 
305 ; progressive present and preterit, 299, 
456 *, what verbs made passive, 304 - 5. 

passive or past participle — see past, 

passive progressive tenses, 299, 456. 

past or passive participle, 238 - 40, 244, 
259, 452 ; fuller forms used attributively, 
275, 455 ; used as active with have, 454. 

past perfect tense — see pluperfect. 

past time, expression of, in verb, 64, 279, 
281, 288. 

perfect tenses, verb-phrases, 288, 292 ; per- 
fect infinitive and participle, 294, 439, 
452 ; passive participle, 294, 452. 

person, distinction of, in personal pro- 
noun, 61, 151, 153-60; in compound 
with self, 164 a; in relative pronoun. 
177 ; in verb, 61- 3, 228 - 9, 346 ; absence 
of distinction in noun, 63, 141. 

personal pronouns, 61, 151-65 ; inflection, 
154-5, 160 ; value of plural forms, 156- 
7; use of thou, you, and ye, 158; gender 
in third person, 159, 161-2 ; peculiar 
uses of it, 163; compounds with self, 
164 ; possessive cases or possessive ad- 
jectives, 165. 

personified objects, gender in, 161. 

phrase, definition, 280; verb-phrases, 279- 



305 ; adverb, 315; preposition, 326; prep- 
ositional phrases, adjective and adverb, 
400-4. 

-pie, suffix, 218. 

pluperfect tense, verb-phrase, 288. 

plural number, 58 - 60 ; plural of nouns, 
121 - 30 ; of pronouns, 154 - 60, 166 ; 
uses of we, you, ye, 156-8 ; plural of 
verbs, 59, 230 ; with collective or com- 
pound subject, 34S, 488. 

positive degree in adjective and adverb, 
77-9,197. 

possessive or genitive case, in noun and 
pronoun, 68-70; formation of, in nouns, 
131 - 8 ; pronoun possessives or posses- 
sive adjectives, 165 ; uses, 384 - 9 ; equiva- 
lent of adjective in value, 386 ; in con- 
struction, 388 ; peculiar use with of, 388. 

possessive pronominal adjectives, 205-7. 

potential verb-phrases, 291. 

predicate, essential part of sentence, 24 - 7, 
342 ; bare and complete predicate, 30. 

predicate adjective or noun, 40, 350 - 7 ; 
predicate adjective shades into adveib, 
354 ; into appositive, 355 ; adverbial pred- 
icate, 355; objective or factitive pred- 
icate, 369 - 71 ; participles in predicate 
constructions, 456; adverbs, 382; clauses, 
434 c ; infinitives, 443. 

prefix, 100 - 1. 

preposition, definition and use, 44-6, 319- 
21 ; relation to adverb, 310, 331 ; to eon- 
junction, 327, 331 : to case-inflection, 69, 
399; not inflected, 79-80; simple, deriva- 
tive, and compound, 324 - 5 ; preposition- 
phrases, 326, 423 ; object of a preposition, 
73, 320 ; adverb or adverb-phrase as ob- 
ject, 322, 403 ; adjective, 315, 322 ; clause, 
434 e ; infinitive, 445 ; place of preposi- 
tion, 323 ; left without expressed object, 
323 ; qualified by adverb, 381 ; preposi- 
tional phrases, adjective and adverb, 398 

- 404 : parsing of prepositions, p. 146. 
present participle, 238, 452 ; apparent pas- 
sive use of, 456. 

present tense, 64, 232 ; emphatic and pro- 
gressive, 279-81. 
preterit tense, 64,232; modes of forming, 239 

- 40 ; emphatic and progressive, 279 - 81. 
principal clause — see independent, 
principal parts of verb, 242. 



INDEX. 



259 



progressive verb-phrases, 281, 293 ; passive, 
299, 456 ; infinitive and participle, 294, 
439, 452. 

pronominal adjectives, 195, 204 - 11 ; pos- 
sessive, 205 - 7 ; demonstrative, 208 ; in- 
terrogative, 209 ; relative, 210 ; indefi- 
nite, 211. 

pronominal adverbs, 313 e ; compounds 
with prepositions, 314 ; use as conjunc- 
tions, 331. 

pronoun, definition and use, 33-4, 149- 
50 ; inflection, 58, 70 - 75, 151 ; distinc- 
tion of person, 61, 151, 153-60 ; of gen- 
der, 151, 159 ; of persons or otherwise, 
171 ; classes of pronouns, 152 ; personal, 
153-65; demonstrative, 166-8; inter- 
rogative, 169-73, 468, 470, 481 ; relative 
or conjunctive, 174-87 ; indefinite, 188 - 
9 ; constructions of pronouns, 150 ; quali- 
fied only by predicate and appositive 
adjectives, 40, 150, 376 ; parsing of pro- 
nouns, pp. 79 - 81. 

proper names or nouns, 113. 

qualifiers of subject or predicate, 407. 
qualifying parts of speech, 38, 41, 43, 49. 
quantitative pronouns, 189 ; pronominal 

adjectives, 211. 
question — see interrogative, 
question and answer, abbreviation in, 490. 

reciprocal pronoun-phrases, 18^. 

reduplication, original, of Old preterits, 
272. 

reflexive pronouns, 164 b. 

reflexive verb-phrases, 306 ; object of in- 
transitive verb, 302 d ; factitive use of 
reflexive, 370 ; change of reflexive to in- 
transitive verb, 504. 

regular or New conjugation — see New. 

relative or conjunctive pronouns, 174 - 87 ; 
nature of relative, antecedent, 175 - 6 ; 
distinction of person, 177 ; compound 
relative, 181 - 3 ; indefinite relative, 183 ; 
abbreviated construction with, 434 ; as 
and but in quasi-relative use, 186 - 7 : — 
relative pronominal adjectives, 210 : — 
relative adverbs or conjunctions, 185, 
331,430: — use of relative words in 
combining clauses, 410, 415, 430, 435 a. 

repetition avoided by abbreviated expres- 
sion, 485-94. 

responsives, 318, 466, 490. 



root of a verb, 87. 

root-infinitive, 237, 439 — and see infinitive. 

second person, 61, 153 ; pronoun of, 155, 
158 ; uses of thou, ye, you, 158 ; value 
of plural, 156. 

selective use of interrogative and relative 
pronouns, 172, 182 ; adjectives, 209 - 10. 

self, compound pronouns with, 164. 

sentence, the unit in language, 20 - 1 ; kinds 
of sentence, 22, 53 - 5, 33S - 9 ; necessary 
parts, subject and predicate, 23-7, 340- 
2, 344, 347 ; parts of speech composing, 
28*31, 340-1; bare sentence, 25, 341, 
344, 347 ; syntax of simple sentence, 
337-409 ; of compound and complex sen- 
tences, 410-37; incomplete sentences, 
482-503. 

shall and will, auxiliaries forming future 
and conditional verb-phrases, 282, 287 ; 
outlines of their distinction, 283-7. 

sibilant sounds, 123 c. 

sign of infinitive, to, 237 ; its use and omis- 
sion, 440-1. 

simple sentence, 408 : — and see sentence. 

singular number, 58 - 60, 121. 

so, substitute for repeated word or phrase, 
493'; so glad etc., 497. 

so far from etc., 497. 

-some, suffix, 193 a, b. 

stem or base, 87. 

strong or Old conjugation — see Old. 

subject, essential part of sentence, 24 - 7, 
342 - 3 ; subject-nominative of verb, 343 ; 
agreement of verb with, 346 - 8 ; imper- 
sonal, collective, and compound subjects, 
348 ; omission, with imperative, 475 ; in 
certain abbreviated constructions, 495 : 
— objective subject of infinitive, 449 ; 
equivalence with other constructions, 
459. 

subjective case — see nominative. 

subjective genitive, 385 a ; use with infini- 
tive in ing, 446, 459. 

subjunctive mode, 65, 233-4 ; optative use 
of, 479. 

subordinate clause — see dependent. 

subordinating conjunctions, classes, 330. 

substantive, 35, 143 ; use of adjective etc., 
143 - 8, 462. 

substantive-clause, 147, 422-3, 434-6. 

substantive conjunction that, 330 e. 



260 



INDEX. 



substitution in place of inflection, 85. 

suffix, 90. 

superlative degree, in adjective and adverb, 
77-9, 197-201, 316. 

syntax, 337 ; of simple sentence, 338 - 410 ; 
of compound and complex sentences, 
411 - 37 ; of infinitive and participle, 438 - 
62 ; of interrogative and imperative sen- 
tences, 463 - 80 ; of exclamatory senten- 
ces, 481, 498 - 503 ; of incomplete sen- 
tences, 482-508. 

tense, in verb, 64 ; inflection, 243 ; irregu- 
larities, 256 ; tense-phrases, 279-305. 

Teutonic or Germanic languages — see Ger- 
manic. 

-th, suffix, 89, 93, 118 a, 216 ; old ending in 
verbs, 243. 

than, abbreviated expression with, 330 d, 
494; use as conjunction, 506; as prepo- 
sition, 330 d. 

that as relative pronoun, 180 ; as conjunc- 
tion, 330 e, 435 c ; omission of, 1S4, 331, 
436. 

the, article, 219 - 20 ; pronominal adverb, 
221, 313 e. 

theme or base, 87. 

there, peculiar use of (there is etc.), 317. 

third person, 61, 153 ; pronoun of, 159-63. 

thou, use of, 158. 

time, inflection of verb for, 64, 232. 

time of anything, expressed by adverbial 
objective, 393. 

to as sign of infinitive, 237 ; as substitute, 
492 ; its use or omission, 440 - 1. 

too and too much, 309. 

transitive verb, 223, 358. 

-ty or -ity, suffix, 118 a. 

un-, prefix, 100, 193 d, 225 b. 
understood, meaning of, 483. 
uninflected parts of speech, 79. 

verb, definition, 28 - 9, 222 ; essential to a 
sentence, 28, 40, 222, 340 ; inflection for 
number, 59-60, 228, 230; for person, 
61-3, 229 ; for tense, 64, 232 ; for mode, 



65, 233 ; tense-inflection, 242 - 3 ; infini- 
tives and participles, verbal nouns and 
adjectives, 235-8; conjugation, 66-7, 
227 ; principal parts, 242 ; Old and New 
conjugations, 239-41, 244-74; irregular 
auxiliary verbs, 276 - 8 ; alphabetic list 
of irregular verbs of all kinds, p. 135 ; 
compound verbal forms, or verb-phrases, 
279 - 305 ; passive-phrases, 297 - 305 ; 
complete system of forms and phrases, 
295 ; passive, 300 : — classes, transitive 
and intransitive, 223, 358-61; distinc- 
tion of active, passive, and neuter, 301, 
361 ; simple, derivative, and compound, 
224 - 6 ; reflexive, 306 ; impersonal, 307 : 
— constructions : agreement with sub- 
ject, 59-63, 346 - 8 ; completed by pred- 
icate noun or adjective, 40, 351-7; by 
object, 71, 358-68 ; with objective pred- 
icate, 369 - 71 ; by qualifying adverb or 
adverb-phrase, 380-3, 402 ; by adverbial 
objective, 390-4; omission of verb, in 
abbreviated expression, 495 ; parsing of 
verbs, p. 131 - 3. 

verb-phrases, of tense and mode, 279-96; 
passive, 297 - 305 ; shade into ordinary 
expressions, 296. 

very and very much, 309. 

vocative or nominative of address, 141, 158, 
502 ; its construction, 141. 

voice, active and passive, 301. 

'-ward or -wards, suffix, 313 c. 

weak or New conjugation — see New. 

Welsh, formerly spoken in England, 2. 

what if, what though, 496. 

whether as conjunction, 506. 

whose or of which, 179. 

will and shall, auxiliaries forming future 

and condition alverb-phrases, 282, 287; 

outlines of their distinction, 283 - 7. 
-wise, suffix, 313 b. 
word of any kind used as noun, 148. 
words, 16; their different uses, 16-8; 

classified as parts of speech, 18-9. 

-y, suffix, 93, 193 a. 

ye and you, use of, 158. 



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suggestive, and aimed at difficulties where help is really due. I shall be 
glad to use this edition as a class manual. 

From Prof. Goodwin, of Harvard College. 
A valuable accession to our available classical library. 

From Prof Packard, of Yale College. 

I have seen more reason, as I have lojked over the book, to value it very 
highly. No one could faithfully use it without learning a great deal, im- 
proving his habits of study, and really developing his powers of thought. 

In truth I know of no better edition of a Greek author with English 
notes. 

From Prof. Hart, Trinity College. 

I like the Notes, especially in their full explanations of points in the con- 
stitution of Athens, and in the abundance of references to the Grammars. 

From Prof. J. H. Allen, of Cambridge. 

One should not take notice Of your volume at all without bearing witness 
to the great amount of care, skill, and fulness of instruction in it. 

From Prof. Kerr, of the University of Wisconsin. 

The book contains features of unusual value to the student of Athenian 
Oratory. 

From Prof. Tyler, of Amherst College. 

I have experienced a rare pleasure in a cursory examination of the beau- 
tiful copy of the " Orations of Lysias, edited by James Morris Whiton, 
Ph D.," which you were so kind as to send me. The concise, clear, and ex- 
act Notes on the text, chiefly grammatical, are well adapted to guide and aid 
the student's labors ; and the Introductions, the General Notes, and the 
analysis of the arguments are features, partly new, of great value and merit, 
and of unusual interest. 

From Prof. Fernald, Williams College. 

The book will, without doubt, prove very useful, and fill a gap in the 
American list of editions of the classics which should have been filled before. 
I am certain that it will be a very satisfactory book for college use. 



Boston, January, 1877. 

GINN & HEATH, 

publishers, 

13 Tremont Place, .... BOSTON. 



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comparative philologists ; 2. The comparison with kindred languages suggested 
throughout, especially in numerous brief philological notes, and in references to the 
syntax of Goodwin's Greek Grammar ; 3. Grouping and subordination of topics in 
the Syntax, — which contains nearly 200 cross-references, with upwards of 1,000 
citations from classic authors, — so that unusual brevity is attained without sacri- 
fice of completeness. 

ALLEN & GREENOUGH'S LATIN METHOD : a 

Method of Instruction in Latin ; being a companion and guide in the study of 
Latin Grammar. With elementary instruction in Heading at Sight, Exercises 
in Translation and Writing, Notes, and Vocabularies ; also " Outlines of Syn- 
tax," taken from the Latin Grammar. 12mo. Cloth. 134 pages . . .80 1.00 

ALLEN & GREENOUGH'S LATIN COMPOSITION : 

an Elementary Guide to Writing in Latin. Part I. Constructions of Syntax ; 

Part II. Exercises in Translation. 12mo. Cloth. 198 pages. . . 1.20 1.50 

Part First (which is published separately) consists of thirty progressive Lessons, 
with full instructions, exercises, and vocabulary ; and is designed " to furnish a 
sufficient amount of study and practice in Latin composition during the la*t year 
of preparation for college, or the first of a college course." Part Second consists of 
about forty exercises in translation, chiefly narrative, adapted to the use of advanced 
or college classes; with annotated references to the Lessons of Part I., and to the 
sections of a special Introduction on the Choice of Words, the Form of the Sentence, 
and Idiomatic Usages. 

ALLEN &> GREENOUGH'S OSJSAR : Csesar's Gallic 

War. Four Books. With Historical Introduction, Notes, and a Copperplate 
Map of Gaul. [With a full Vocabulary by R. F. Pennell, of Phillips Exeter 
Academy.] 12m o. Half morocco. 282 pages . . . .. . 1.20 1.50 

Without Vocabulary 1.00 1.25 

The text of this edition is that of Nipperdey, important variations being noticed. 
The notes are unusually full in historical illustration, derived largely from Momm- 
sen, Long, Meri vale, the "History of Julius Caesar" by Napoleon III., and the 
excellent school edition of Moberly. In the earlier portions they are especially de- 
signed to guide in a systematic and careful study of Latin syntax. 

ALLEN & GREENOUGH'S SALLUST: The Conspiracy 

of Catiline as related by Sallust. With Introduction and Notes explanatory 

and historical. 12mo. Cloth. 84 pages 80 1.00 

ALLEN & GREENOUGH'S CICERO: Select Orations of 

Cicero, chronologically arranged, covering the entire period of his public life. 
From the text of Baiter and Kayser. With Life, general and special Introduc- 
tions, and Index of topics discussed. 12mo. Half morocco. 394 pages . 1.40 1.75 

The text without notes : . . . .80 1 00 

It is the design of this edition to give a full view of Cicero's public career, as ora- 
tor and statesman, extending through about forty of the most eventful years of the 
later Republic. With this view, the selection includes the earliest and the latest 
of his public orations, while the special Introductions cover very fully the inter- 
vening political history. Besides the orations more commonly read in schools, are 
given the Roscius and Sestius (abridged), with the first against Verres and the last 

9 



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Philippic, — thirteen in all, — with one or two short passages of special celebrity, for 
practice in reading at sight. Especial rare has been taken iu the department of 
Antiquities, which has been treated in numerous notes (in smaller type), some of 
them — as that on the Roman Aristocracy — being brief essays on the several topics. 
The Introduction contains a classified list of all the works of Cicero, with the 
occasions and topics of ail of his orations. 

ALLEN & GREBNOUGH'S CATO MAJOR: Cicero 

De Senectute, a Dialogue on Old Age. With Introduction (on the adoption in 
Rome of the Greek philosophy) and Notes. 12mo. Cloth. 57 pages $0.60 $0.75 

ALLEN & GREENOUGH'S OVID: Selections from the 

Poems of Ovid, chiefly the Metamorphoses. With special Introductions, Notes, 

and Index of Proper Names. 12mo. Half morocco. 283 pages . . 1.20 1.50 

The introductions to the passages from the Metamorphoses (23 in number) give 
the entire argument of the poem, that of omitted portions bracketed. The other 
selections include those of special interest as illustrating the poet's life ; and a list 
is given of all his writings, with their topics and occasions. The Notes contain 
brief instructions on scanning at sight. 

ALLEN & GREENOTJGH'S VIRGIL : The Poems of 

Virgil ; Vol. I. containing the Pastoral Poems {Bucolics) and Six Books of the 
JEneid. Chiefly from the text of Ribbeck, with select various Readings, Intro- 
ductions, Notes, and Index of Plants (compiled chiefly from Fee's Flore de 
Virgile, contained in Lemaire's " Bibliotheca Classica Latina"). 12mo. Half 

morocco. 372 pages 1.40 1.75 

The text without notes 80 1.00 

The Notes of this edition (which are brief and very numerous * are particularly 
indebted to Conington, aud are designed " to give not only what may serve the 
learner in the bare understanding of the text ; but, along with it, some hint of that 
wealth of traditional interpretation which is more important, perhaps, in the study 
of Virgil than in that of any other ancient poet." 



The following are published in single volumes : — «• 

ALLEN & GREENOTJGH'S Course No. I. A Full Pre- 

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ALLEN & GREENOTJGH'S Course No. II. Second 

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N. B. Course No. I. is identical with the First Course prescribed for admission to 
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leges. 

ALLEN & GREENOTJGH'S CICERO. Eight Orations 

of Cicero. Wit.h Vocabulary by R. F. Pennell. 12m o. Half mo- 
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ALLEN'S LATIN GRAMMAR. 12mo. Cloth. 

182 pages 1.00 1.25 

ALLEN'S LATIN LESSONS. 12mo. Cloth. 

146 pages 1.00 1.25 

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ALLEN'S LATIN READEK: Consisting of Selections from 

Caesar (the invasion of Britain and account of the Gallic and German popula- 
tions), Curtius (Anecdotes of Alexander), Nepos (Life of Hannibal), Sallust 
(Jugurtha, abridged), Ovid, Virgil, Plautus, and Terence (single scenes), Cicero 
and Pliny (Letters), and Tacitus (the Conflagration of Rome). With Notes and 
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ALLEN'S LATIN SELECTIONS. The same as the above, 

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ALLEN'S LATIN COMPOSITION. An Introduction to 

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This book includes a careful review of the principles of Syntax (beginning with 

Indirect Discourse >, with exercises in various styles of composition selected from 

classical authors. Also short exercises for oral practice. 

ALLEN'S SHORTER COURSE OF LATIN PROSE. 

Consisting chiefly of the Prose Selections of Allen's Latin Reader (to p. 134), 
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ALLEN'S LATIN PRIMER. A First Book of Latin for 

Boys and Girls. (By J. H. Allen.) 12mo. Cloth. 182 pages . . 1.00 1.25 
This is designed for the use of scholars of a younger class, and consists of thirty 
Lessons arranged so as to give a full outline of the grammar, with brief Rules of Syn- 
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from Histories Sacra. The reading selections which follow include Dialogues from 
Corderius and Erasmus (with translation), narratives, nursery songs, mediaeval 
hymns, etc., being made up in great part trom modern Latin writers. 

ALLEN'S LATIN LEXICON : a General Vocabulary of 
hnt'm, with Supplementary Tables of Dates, Antiquities, etc. By J. H. Allen 

12mo. Cloth. 214 pages 1.00 1.25 

This little dictionary contains " about 15,000 words of common use, besides more 
than 1,300 proper names or adjectives, and about 200 dates (exclusive of the Tables), 
covering the more important points of classical history and mythology." It is be- 
lieved to be complete for the entire introductory course of Latin authors, including 
Ovid and Virgil. 

LEIGHTON'S LATIN LESSONS. Prepared to accom- 
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Master of Melrose High School. Revised Edition. 12mo. Half morocco. 352 
pagts 125 1.66 

This work presents a progressive series of exercises (both Latin and English) in 
about eighty Lessons, illustrating the grammatical forms and the simpler principles 
of syntax. Synonymes and Kules of Quantity are introduced from the first. The 
amount of illustrative matter in exercises for reading and writing or oral practice 
is verv large, including portions of Vtri ROM^E, and Woodford's Epitome of the 
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the book, with questions for examination and review of the grammar. 

The Lessons have been entirely rewritten, considerably simplified, and more 
carefully graded. With each lesson, definite directions have been given in regard 
to the amount of the grammar to be learned. By decreasing the exercises to be 
translated into English, space has been given to increase correspondingly the 
amount to be put into Latin. Some instruction on the formation of words has 
been given, and the references to the grammar on that subject largely increased. 
The vocabularies have also been carefully revised. 

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MADVIG'S LATIN GRAMMAR. Carefully revised by 

Thomas A. Thacher, Yale College. 12mo. Half morocco. 517 pages $2. 40 $300 

A book of the very highest authority in Latin Syntax, and admirably adapted to 
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NEW LATIN METHOD : a Manual of Instruction in Latin 

on the Basis of a Latin Method prepared by J. H. Allen and J. B. 
Greenouoh. 12mo. Cloth. 244 pages 1.20 1.50 

The " New Method" contains : 1. About thirty Elementary Lessons on the 
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moods, etc., accompanied by full Paradigms, and Exercises in Latin and English, 
with partial vocabularies. N. B. This portion of the book can be used independ- 
ently of the Grammar, and is sufficient for a course of about a year's study. 
2. Constructions op Syntax symmetrically grouped, with full references to 
the Grammar, each topic being illustrated by numerous exampUs, with exercises 
to be rendered into Latin, so as to make a full elementary manual of Latin Compo- 
sition. — 3. On Reading Latin: brief sections on the Latin Sentence, with ex- 
amples of anaylsis and translation ; the Derivation of Words ; and Reading at 
Sight. — 4. Reading Lessons, with Vocabularies, and Tabular List of Synonymes. 

THE LATIN VERB. Illustrated by the Sanskrit. By C. H. 

Parkhurst. 12mo. Cloth. 55 pages 40 60 

WHITE'S JUNIOR STUDENT'S LATIN-ENGLISH 

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WHITE'S JUNIOR STUDENT'S LATIN-ENGLISH 

AND ENGLISH-LATIN LEXICON. By the Rev. J. T. White, D D, of 
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Square 12mo. 1058 pages. Sheep 3.60 450 

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verbs and the genders and genitive cases of the substantives are uniformly added. 
In the preparation of this portion of the book, Dr. White has had the assistance of 
some of the best scholars both of Oxford and Cambridge." — Guardian. 

WHITE'S JUNIOR STUDENT'S ENGLISH-LATIN 

LEXICON. Square 12mo. Sheep. 392 pages 2.00 2.50 

We have contracted with Messrs. Longmans, Green, & Co., of London, for the 
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